In the later 20th century, uprisings and demands for political representation resulted in theUnited Nations assuming direct responsibility over the territory in 1966, but South Africa maintainedde facto rule until 1973. That year the UN recognised theSouth West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) as the official representative of the Namibian people.
With a population of 3.1 million people, Namibia is one of themost sparsely populated countries in the world. Since the end of theCold War, it has attracted notable immigration from Germany, Angola, and Zimbabwe.[32] In 2021, German and Namibian diplomats created a "reconciliation agreement" acknowledging atrocities from the German colonial period.[33]
The name of the country is derived from theNamib desert, the oldest desert in the world.[34] The wordNamib itself is ofKhoi origin and means "vast place". The name was chosen byMburumba Kerina, who originally proposed "Republic of Namib".[35] Before Namibia became independent in 1990, its territory was known first asGerman South-West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika), and then asSouth West Africa, reflecting its colonial occupation by Germans and South Africans, respectively.
The dry lands of Namibia have been inhabited since prehistoric times by theSan,Damara, andNama. For thousands of years, theKhoisan peoples of Southern Africa maintained anomadic life, theKhoikhoi as pastoralists and the San people ashunter-gatherers. Around the 14th century, immigratingBantu people began to arrive during theBantu expansion from central Africa.[36]
From the late 18th century onward,Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed theOrange River and moved into the area that today is southern Namibia.[37] Their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. They received the missionaries accompanying the Oorlam very well,[38] granting them the right to use waterholes and grazing against an annual payment.[39] On their way further north, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of theOvaHerero at Windhoek,Gobabis, andOkahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after theGerman Empire deployed troops to the contested places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam, and Herero.[40]
The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigatorsDiogo Cão in 1485[41] andBartolomeu Dias in 1486, but the Portuguese did not try to claim the area. Like most of the interior ofSub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century. At that time traders and settlers came principally from Germany and Sweden. In 1870,Finnish missionaries came to the northern part of Namibia to spread theLutheran religion among theOwambo andKavango people.[42] In the late 19th century,Dorsland Trekkers crossed the area on their way from theTransvaal to Angola. Some of them settled in Namibia instead of continuing their journey.
Namibia became a German colony in 1884 underOtto von Bismarck to forestall perceived British encroachment and was known asGerman South West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika).[43] ThePalgrave Commission by the British governor inCape Town determined that only the natural deep-water harbour of Walvis Bay was worth occupying and thus annexed it to the Cape province of British South Africa.
In 1897, arinderpest epidemic caused massive cattle die-offs of an estimated 95% of cattle in southern and central Namibia. In response the German colonisers set up a veterinarycordon fence known as theRed Line.[44] In 1907 this fence then broadly defined the boundaries for the first Police Zone.[45]
From 1904 to 1907, theHerero and theNamatook up arms against ruthless German settlers. In a calculated punitive action by the German settlers,government officials ordered the extinction of the natives in the OvaHerero and Nama genocide. In what has been called the "first genocide of the 20th century",[46] the Germans systematically killed 10,000 Nama (half the population) and approximately 65,000 Herero (about 80% of the population).[47][48] The survivors, when finally released from detention, were subjected to a policy of dispossession, deportation, forced labour, racial segregation, and discrimination in a system that in many ways foreshadowed theapartheid established by South Africa in 1948. Most Africans were confined to so-called native territories, which under South African rule after 1949 were turned into "homelands" (Bantustans).
Some historians have speculated that the downfall of the Herero in Namibia was a model for theNazis inthe Holocaust.[49] The memory of what happened under German rule has contributed to shape the ethnic identity in independent Namibia and has kept its significance in today's relations with Germany.[50]
The German minister for development aid apologised for the Namibian genocide in 2004. However, the German government distanced itself from this apology.[51] Only in 2021 did theGerman government acknowledge the genocide and agree to pay €1.1 billion over 30 years in community aid.[52]
During World War I, South African troops under GeneralLouis Bothaoccupied the territory and deposed the German colonial administration. The end of the war and theTreaty of Versailles resulted in South West Africa remaining a possession of South Africa, at first as aLeague of Nations mandate, until 1990.[53] The mandate system was formed as a compromise between those who advocated for an Allied annexation of former German and Ottoman territories and a proposition put forward by those who wished to grant them to an international trusteeship until they could govern themselves.[53] It permitted the South African government to administer South West Africa until that territory's inhabitants were prepared for political self-determination.[54] South Africa interpreted the mandate as a veiled annexation and made no attempt to prepare South West Africa for future autonomy.[54]
As a result of theConference on International Organization in 1945, the League of Nations was formally superseded by theUnited Nations (UN) and former League mandates by a trusteeship system. Article 77 of theUnited Nations Charter stated that UN trusteeship "shall apply...to territories now held under mandate"; furthermore, it would "be a matter of subsequent agreement as to which territories in the foregoing territories will be brought under the trusteeship system and under what terms".[55] The UN requested all former League of Nations mandates be surrendered to itsTrusteeship Council in anticipation of their independence.[55] South Africa declined to do so and instead requested permission from the UN to formally annex South West Africa, for which it received considerable criticism.[55] When the UN General Assembly rejected this proposal, South Africa dismissed its opinion and began solidifying control of the territory.[55] The UN General Assembly and Security Council responded by referring the issue to theInternational Court of Justice (ICJ), which held a number of discussions on the legality of South African rule between 1949 and 1966.[56]
South Africa began imposingapartheid, its codified system of racial segregation and discrimination, on South West Africa during the late 1940s.[57] Black South West Africans were subject topass laws, curfews, and a host of residential regulations that restricted their movement.[57] Development was concentrated in the southern region of the territory adjacent to South Africa, known as the "Police Zone", where most of the major settlements and commercial economic activity were located.[58] Outside the Police Zone, indigenous peoples were restricted to theoretically self-governingtribal homelands.[58]
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the accelerateddecolonisation of Africa and mounting pressure on the remaining colonial powers to grant their colonies self-determination resulted in the formation of nascent nationalist parties in South West Africa.[59] Movements such as theSouth West African National Union (SWANU) and theSouth West African People's Organisation (SWAPO) advocated for the formal termination of South Africa's mandate and independence for the territory.[59] In 1966, following the ICJ's controversial ruling that it had no legal standing to consider the question of South African rule, SWAPO launched an armed insurgency that escalated into part of a wider regional conflict known as theSouth African Border War.[60]
Foreign Observer identification badge issued during the 1989 Namibian election
In 1971 Namibian contract workers led ageneral strike against the contract system and in support of independence.[61] Some of the striking workers would later join SWAPO'sPLAN[62] as part of the South African Border War.
As SWAPO's insurgency intensified, South Africa's case for annexation in the international community continued to decline.[63] The UN declared that South Africa had failed in its obligations to ensure the moral and material well-being of South West Africa's indigenous inhabitants, and had thus disavowed its own mandate.[64] On 12 June 1968, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution proclaiming that, in accordance with the desires of its people, South West Africa be renamedNamibia.[64]United Nations Security Council Resolution 269, adopted in August 1969, declared South Africa's continued occupation of Namibia illegal.[64][65] In recognition of this landmark decision, SWAPO's armed wing was renamed thePeople's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN).[66]
Namibia became one of several flashpoints forCold War proxy conflicts in southern Africa during the latter years of the PLAN insurgency.[67] The insurgents sought out weapons and sent recruits to the Soviet Union for military training.[68] As the PLAN war effort gained momentum, the Soviet Union and other sympathetic states such as Cuba continued to increase their support, deploying advisers to train the insurgents directly as well as supplying more weapons and ammunition.[69] SWAPO's leadership, dependent on Soviet, Angolan, and Cuban military aid, positioned the movement firmly within the socialist bloc by 1975.[70] This practical alliance reinforced the external perception of SWAPO as a Soviet proxy, which dominated Cold War rhetoric in South Africa and the United States.[58] For its part, the Soviet Union supported SWAPO partly because it viewed South Africa as a regional Western ally.[71]
South African troops patrol the border region for PLAN insurgents, 1980s.
Growing war weariness and the reduction of tensions between the superpowers compelled South Africa, Angola, and Cuba to accede to theTripartite Accord, under pressure from both the Soviet Union and the United States.[72] South Africa accepted Namibian independence in exchange for Cuban military withdrawal from the region and an Angolan commitment to cease all aid to PLAN.[73] PLAN and South Africa adopted an informal ceasefire in August 1988, and aUnited Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) was formed to monitor the Namibian peace process and supervise the return of refugees.[74] The ceasefire was broken after PLAN made a final incursion into the territory, possibly as a result of misunderstanding UNTAG's directives, in March 1989.[75] A new ceasefire was later imposed with the condition that the insurgents were to be confined to their external bases in Angola until they could be disarmed and demobilised by UNTAG.[74][76]
By the end of the 11-month transition period, the last South African troops had been withdrawn from Namibia, all political prisoners granted amnesty, racially discriminatory legislation repealed, and 42,000 Namibian refugees returned to their homes.[70] Just over 97% of eligible voters participated in the country's firstparliamentary elections held under auniversal franchise.[77] The United Nations plan included oversight byforeign election observers in an effort to ensure afree and fair election. SWAPO won a plurality of seats in theConstituent Assembly with 57% of the popular vote.[77] This gave the party 41 seats, but not a two-thirds majority, which would have enabled it to draft the constitution on its own.[77]
The Namibian Constitution was adopted in February 1990. It incorporated protection for human rights and compensation for state expropriations of private property and established an independent judiciary, legislature, and an executive presidency (the constituent assembly became the national assembly). The country officially became independent on 21 March 1990.[78][42]Sam Nujoma was sworn in as the firstPresident of Namibia at a ceremony attended byNelson Mandela of South Africa (who had been released from prison the previous month) and representatives from 147 countries, including 20 heads of state.[79] In 1994, shortly before the first multiracial elections in South Africa, that country ceded Walvis Bay to Namibia.[80]
Since independence Namibia has completed the transition from white minority apartheid rule to parliamentary democracy.Multiparty democracy was introduced and has been maintained, with local, regional andnational elections held regularly. Several registered political parties are active and represented in the National Assembly, although theSWAPO has won every election since independence.[81] The transition from the 15-year rule of PresidentNujoma to his successorHifikepunye Pohamba in 2005 went smoothly.[82]
Since independence, the Namibian government has promoted a policy of national reconciliation. It issued an amnesty for those who fought on either side during the liberation war. The civil war in Angola spilled over and adversely affected Namibians living in the north of the country. In 1998,Namibia Defence Force (NDF) troops were sent to theDemocratic Republic of the Congo as part of aSouthern African Development Community (SADC) contingent. In 1999, the national government quashed a secessionist attempt in the northeasternCaprivi Strip.[82] TheCaprivi conflict was initiated by theCaprivi Liberation Army (CLA), arebel group led byMishake Muyongo. It wanted the Caprivi Strip to secede and form its own society.[83]
In 2007,Twyfelfontein was inscribed as a culturalUNESCO World Heritage Site, a prehistoric site with one of the largest concentrations of rock engravings on the African continent.[84] In December 2014, Prime MinisterHage Geingob, the candidate of ruling SWAPO, won thepresidential elections, taking 87% of the vote. His predecessor, PresidentHifikepunye Pohamba, also of SWAPO, had served the maximum two terms allowed by the constitution.[85] In December 2019, President Hage Geingob wasre-elected for a second term, taking 56.3% of the vote.[86] On 4 February 2024, President Hage Geingob died and he was immediately succeeded by vice-presidentNangolo Mbumba as new President of Namibia who finished the late President's term as it came to an end in March 2025.[87] SWAPO's first female presidential candidate,Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah, was declared the winner of the2024 elections with 57% of the vote.[88] On 21 March 2025, she was sworn in as Namibia's new president.[89]
At 825,615 km2 (318,772 sq mi),[90] Namibia is the world's 34th largest country (afterVenezuela). It lies mostly between latitudes17° and29°S (a small area is north of 17°), and longitudes11° and26°E.
The Namibian landscape consists generally of five geographical areas, each with characteristicabiotic conditions and vegetation, with some variation within and overlap between them: the Central Plateau, theNamib Desert, theGreat Escarpment, theBushveld, and theKalahari Desert.
Namibia is situated between the Namib andKalahari Deserts. Namibia has the least rainfall of any country in sub-Saharan Africa.[91] The Namib is a broad expanse of hyper-arid gravel plains and dunes that stretches along Namibia's entire coastline. It varies between 100 and 200 km (60 and 120 mi) in width. Areas within the Namib include the Skeleton Coast and theKaokoveld in the north and the extensive Namib Sand Sea along the central coast.[34]
The Central Plateau runs from north to south, bordered by theSkeleton Coast (a coastal desert) to the northwest, the Namib Desert and its coastal plains to the southwest, theOrange River to the south, and the Kalahari Desert to the east. The Central Plateau is home to the highest point in Namibia atKönigstein elevation 2,573 m (8,440 ft; 1.60 mi).[92][93]
The Great Escarpment swiftly rises to over 2,000 m (6,600 ft). Average temperatures and temperature ranges increase further inland from the cold Atlantic waters, while the lingering coastal fogs slowly diminish. Although the area is rocky with poorly developed soils, it is significantly more productive than the Namib Desert. As summer winds are forced over the Escarpment, moisture is extracted as precipitation.[94]
The Bushveld is found in north-eastern Namibia along the Angolan border and in the Caprivi Strip. The area receives a significantly greater amount of precipitation than the rest of the country, averaging around 400 mm (16 in) per year. The area is generally flat and the soils sandy, limiting their ability to retain water and support agriculture.[95]
The Kalahari Desert, an arid region that extends into South Africa and Botswana, is one of Namibia's well-known geographical features. The Kalahari, while popularly known as a desert, has a variety of localised environments, including some verdant and technically non-desert areas. TheSucculent Karoo is home to over 5,000 species of plants, nearly half of themendemic; approximately 10 percent of the world'ssucculents are found in the Karoo.[96][97] The reason behind this high productivity and endemism may be the relatively stable nature of precipitation.[98]
Namibia's Coastal Desert is one of the oldest deserts in the world. Its sand dunes, created by the strong onshore winds, are the highest in the world.[99] Because of the location of the shoreline, at the point where the Atlantic's cold water reaches Africa's hot climate, often extremely dense fog forms along the coast.[100] Near the coast there are areas where the dune-hummocks are vegetated.[101] Namibia has rich coastal and marine resources that remain largely unexplored.[102] TheCaprivi Strip extends east from the northeastern corner of the country.
Namibia has 13 cities, governed by municipalities and 26 towns, governed by town councils.[103][104] The capital Windhoek is by far the largest urban settlement in Namibia.
Köppen climate types of NamibiaNamibia is primarily a large desert and a semi-desert plateau
Namibia extends from 17°S to 25°S latitude: climatically the range of the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt. Its overall climate description is arid, descending from the Sub-Humid [mean rain above 500 mm (20 in)] through Semi-Arid [between 300 and 500 mm (12 and 20 in)] (embracing most of the waterless Kalahari) and Arid [from 150 to 300 mm (5.9 to 12 in)] (these three regions are inland from the westernescarpment) to the Hyper-Arid coastal plain [less than 100 mm (3.9 in)]. Temperature maxima are limited by the overall elevation of the entire region: only in the far south,Warmbad for instance, are maxima above 40 °C (104 °F) recorded.[106]
Typically the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt, with frequent clear skies, provides more than 300 days of sunshine per year. It is situated at the southern edge of the tropics; theTropic of Capricorn cuts the country about in half. The winter (June–August) is generally dry. Both rainy seasons occur in summer: the small rainy season between September and November, and the big one between February and April.[107] Humidity is low, and average rainfall varies from almost zero in theSkeleton Coast (a coastal desert) to more than 600 mm (24 in) in the Caprivi Strip. Rainfall is highly variable, and droughts are common.[108] In the summer of 2006–07 the rainfall was recorded far below the annual average.[109] In May 2019, Namibia declared a state of emergency in response to the drought,[110] and extended it by an additional 6 months in October 2019.[111]
Weather and climate in the coastal area are dominated by the cold, north-flowingBenguela Current of the Atlantic Ocean, which accounts for very lowprecipitation (50 mm (2.0 in) per year or less), frequent dense fog, and overall lower temperatures than in the rest of the country.[108] In Winter, occasionally a condition known asBergwind (German for "mountain wind") orOosweer (Afrikaans for "east weather") occurs, a hot dry wind blowing from the inland to the coast. As the area behind the coast is a desert, these winds can develop into sand storms, leaving sand deposits in the Atlantic Ocean that are visible on satellite images.[112]
The Central Plateau and Kalahari areas have widediurnal temperature ranges of up to 30C (54F).[108]
Efundja, the annual seasonal flooding of the northern parts of the country, often causes not only damage to infrastructure but loss of life.[113] The rains that cause these floods originate in Angola, flow into Namibia'sCuvelai-Etosha Basin, and fill theoshanas (Oshiwambo: flood plains) there. The worst floods so far[update] occurred in March 2011 and displaced 21,000 people.[114]
Namibia is the driest country insub-Saharan Africa and depends largely on groundwater. With an average rainfall of about 350 mm (14 in) per annum, the highest rainfall occurs in the Caprivi Strip in the northeast (about 600 mm (24 in) per annum) and decreases in a westerly and southwesterly direction to as little as 50 mm (2.0 in) and less per annum at the coast. The only perennial rivers are found on the national borders with South Africa, Angola, Zambia, and the short border with Botswana in the Caprivi Strip. In the interior of the country, surface water is available only in the summer months when rivers are in flood after exceptional rainfalls. Otherwise, surface water is restricted to a few large storage dams retaining and damming up these seasonal floods and their run-off. Where people do not live near perennial rivers or make use of the storage dams, they are dependent on groundwater. Even isolated communities and those economic activities located far from good surface water sources, such as mining, agriculture, and tourism, can be supplied from groundwater over nearly 80% of the country.[115]
More than 100,000boreholes have been drilled in Namibia over the past century. One third of these boreholes have been drilled dry.[116] Anaquifer called Ohangwena II, on both sides of the Angola-Namibia border, was discovered in 2012. It has been estimated to be capable of supplying a population of 800,000 people in the North for 400 years, at the current (2018) rate of consumption.[117] Experts estimate that Namibia has 7,720 km3 (1,850 cu mi) of underground water.[118][119]
On 8 June 2023, Namibia became the first Southern African country and the eighth country in Africa to accede to the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (UN Water Convention).[120]
Namibia is one of few countries in the world to specifically addressconservation and protection ofnatural resources in its constitution.[121] Article 95 states, "The State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting international policies aimed at the following: maintenance ofecosystems, essential ecological processes, and biological diversity of Namibia, and utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and future."[121]
In 1993, Namibia's newly formed government received funding from theUnited States Agency for International Development (USAID) through its Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE) Project.[122] TheMinistry of Environment and Tourism, with financial support from organisations such as USAID,Endangered Wildlife Trust,World Wide Fund for Nature, and Canadian Ambassador's Fund, together form a Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) support structure. The project's main goal is to promote sustainable natural resource management by giving local communities rights to wildlife management and tourism.[123]
Namibia has various species of wildlife including thewild dog,dik dik and critically endangeredblack rhino. There are 200 terrestrial mammal species, 645 bird species and 115 fish species.[124][125]
Namibia has a largely independentforeign policy, with persisting affiliations with states that aided the independence struggle, includingCuba. With a small army and a fragile economy, the Namibian government's principal foreign policy concern is developing strengthened ties within the Southern African region. A member of theSouthern African Development Community, Namibia is a vocal advocate for greater regional integration. It became the 160th member of the UN on 23 April 1990. On its independence it became the 50th member of theCommonwealth of Nations.
The 2019 budget for theMinistry of Defence was N$5,885 million (a 1.2% decrease from the previous financial year).[133] With close to 6 billion Namibian dollars (US$411 million in 2021) the Ministry of Defence receives the fourth highest amount of money from government per ministry.
Namibia does not have any enemies inthe region, though it has been involved in various disputes regarding borders and construction plans.[134]
The Namibianconstitution defines the role of the military as "defending the territory and national interests." Namibia formed theNamibian Defence Force (NDF), comprising former enemies in a 23-year bush war: thePeople's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) andSouth West AfricanTerritorial Force (SWATF). TheBritish government formulated the plan for integrating these forces and began training the NDF, which consists of a small headquarters and five battalions.
TheUnited Nations Transitional Assistance Group (UNTAG)'s Kenyan infantry battalion remained in Namibia for three months after independence to help train the NDF and to stabilise the north. According to the Namibian Defence Ministry, enlistments of both men and women will number no more than 7,500.
The chief of the Namibian Defence Force is Air Vice MarshalMartin Kambulu Pinehas (with effect from 1 April 2020).
Population density in Namibia by regions (census 2011)
Namibia is divided into 14 regions which are subdivided into 121 constituencies. The administrative division of Namibia is tabled byDelimitation Commissions and accepted or declined by theNational Assembly. Since state foundation four Delimitation Commissions have delivered their work, the last one in 2013 under the chairmanship of Judge Alfred Siboleka.[136] The most urbanised and economically active regions are the Khomas and Erongo regions, with Khomas home to the capital, Windhoek, and Erongo home to Walvis Bay and Swakopmund.
The table below shows statistics from the 2023 Namibia Population and Housing Census:
Namibia is one of the most free and democratic countries in Africa,[139] with a government that maintains and protects human rights and freedoms. However, significant issues include government corruption, policy inertia and prison overcrowding. Also, refugees are not permitted free movement.[140]
Homosexual acts were formerly illegal in Namibia,[141] although the respective law was not enforced.[142] Discrimination, as well as intolerance, againstLGBT people is widespread, specifically in rural areas. Urban areas are generally neutral or supportive with a few LGBT-dedicated clubs and events.[143] Some Namibian government officials and high-profile figures, such as Namibia'sOmbudsman John Walters and First LadyMonica Geingos, had called forsodomy and homosexuality to be decriminalised and are in favour ofLGBT rights.[141][144] In 2023, the Supreme Court ruled that same-sex marriages legally made outside of Namibia must be recognized by the government.[145] In 2024 the Windhoek High Court ruled the ban on homosexual acts between men to be unconstitutional.[146]
In November 2018, it was reported that 32% of women aged 15–49 experiencedviolence anddomestic abuse from their spouses/partners and 29.5% of men believe that physical abuse towards their wife/partner is acceptable, although this is typically in rural areas.[147] The Namibian constitution guarantees the rights, freedoms and equal treatment of women in Namibia[148] and SWAPO, the ruling party in Namibia, has adopted a "zebra system", which ensures a fair balance of both genders in government and equal representation of women in the Namibian government.[149][140]
The trans-African automobile route – theTripoli-Cape Town Highway and theTrans-Kalahari Corridor pass through Namibia. Namibia's economy is tied closely toSouth Africa's due to their shared history.[150][151] In Q3 2023, the largest economic sectors were mining (18.0% of GDP), public administration (12.9%), manufacturing (10.1%), and education (9.2%).[152]
Namibia has a highly developed banking and financial services sector with modern infrastructures, such as online banking and cellphone banking. TheBank of Namibia (BoN) is the central bank of Namibia responsible for performing all other functions ordinarily performed by a central bank. There are five BoN authorised commercial banks in Namibia: Bank Windhoek, First National Bank, Nedbank, Standard Bank and Small and Medium Enterprises Bank.[153] Namibia's economy is characterised by a divide between the formal and the informal economies, which is in part aggravated by the legacy of apartheid spatial planning.[154]
The country's unemployment rate was 33.4% in 2018, with a labour force of 1,090,153.[155] As of 2023, the country has a youth unemployment rate of 38.4%,[156] one of the highest in the world. However, Namibia has a high percentage of skilled labour relative to SADC countries and have relatively low unemployment rates for skilled workers. To fight high unemployment, particularly amongst the youth, the government approved the introduction of an Internship Tax Incentive Programme aimed at incentivising employers to enroll more interns by providing an additional corporate tax deduction. The total financial implication for the Government is estimated at N$126 million.
Poverty and inequality remain significant in the country. 40.9% of the population is affected bymultidimensional poverty while an additional 19.2 percent is classified as vulnerable to multidimensional poverty.[29]Income disparity in the country remains one of the world's highest with aGini coefficient of 59.1 in 2015.[31]
In 2004 a labour act was passed to protect people from job discrimination stemming from pregnancy and HIV/AIDS status. In early 2010 the Governmenttender board announced that "henceforth 100 per cent of all unskilled and semi-skilled labour must be sourced, without exception, from within Namibia".[157]
In 2013, global business and financial news providerBloomberg named Namibia the top emerging market economy in Africa and the 13th best in the world. Only four African countries made the Top 20 Emerging Markets list in the March 2013 issue of Bloomberg Markets magazine, and Namibia was rated ahead ofMorocco (19th), South Africa (15th), and Zambia (14th). Worldwide, Namibia also fared better than Hungary, Brazil, and Mexico. Bloomberg Markets magazine ranked the top 20 based on more than a dozen criteria. The data came from Bloomberg's own financial-market statistics, IMF forecasts and the World Bank. The countries were also rated on areas of particular interest to foreign investors: the ease of doing business, the perceived level of corruption and economic freedom. To attract foreign investment, the government has made improvement in reducing red tape resulted from excessive government regulations, making Namibia one of the least bureaucratic places to do business in the region. Facilitation payments are occasionally demanded by customs due to cumbersome and costly customs procedures.[158] Namibia is also classified as an Upper Middle Income country by theWorld Bank, and ranks 87th out of 185 economies in terms of ease of doing business.[159]
Thecost of living in Namibia is slightly above average because most goods, including cereals, need to be imported. Its capital city, Windhoek, is the 150th most expensive place in the world for expatriates to live.[160]
Taxation in Namibia includes personal income tax, which is applicable to the total taxable income of an individual. All individuals are taxed at progressive marginal rates over a series of income brackets. Tax in Namibia is less than South African tax at monthly incomes greater than N$58,754, with the country's effective tax rates typically plateauing at a maximum of 30.8% while South Africa's plateaus at 37.4%.[161] This makes it favourable for wealthy South Africans to migrate to Namibia given their similar cost of living, cultures and socio-economic factors. In 2024, the government announced in its FY 2024/25 Budget Statement that personal income tax would be lowered, increasing the minimum taxable income from N$50,000 to N$100,000 and reducing taxable income in higher brackets as well.[162]
The value-added tax (VAT) is applicable to most of the commodities and services, except for staple goods such as bread.[163]
Despite the remote nature of much of the country, Namibia has seaports, airports, highways, well-maintained roads, infrastructure andrailways (narrow-gauge). It is an important regional transportation hub for its seaports and trade with landlocked neighbouring countries. The Central Plateau already serves as atransportation corridor from the more densely populated north to South Africa, the source of four-fifths of Namibia's imports.[164]
About half of the population depends on agriculture (largelysubsistence agriculture) for its livelihood, but Namibia must still import some of its food. Although per capita GDP is five times the per capita GDP of Africa's poorest countries, the majority of Namibia's people live in rural areas and have a subsistence way of life. Namibia has one of thehighest rates of income inequality in the world, due in part to the fact that there is an urban economy and a more rural cashless economy. The inequality figures thus take into account people who do not actually rely on the formal economy for their survival. Although arable land accounts for <1% of Namibia, (about .97%), nearly half of the population is employed in agriculture.[164]
About 4,000 commercial farmers own almost half of Namibia's arable land.[165] The United Kingdom offered about $180,000 in 2004 to help finance Namibia'sland reform process, as Namibia plans to start expropriating land from white farmers to resettle landless black Namibians.[166] Germany has offered €1.1bn in 2021 over 30 years in reparations for the genocides in the early 20th century but the money will go towards infrastructure, healthcare and training programmes not land reform.[167]
An agreement has been reached on theprivatisation of several more enterprises in coming years, with hopes that this will stimulate much needed foreign investment, but reinvestment of environmentally derived capital has hobbled Namibian per capita income.[168] One of the fastest growing areas of economic development in Namibia is the growth ofwildlife conservancies.
Providing 25% of Namibia's revenue, mining is the single most important contributor to the economy.[169] Namibia is the fourth largest exporter of non-fuel minerals in Africa and was the world's fourth largest producer ofuranium. There have been significant investment inuranium mining and Namibia planned to become the largest exporter of uranium by 2015.[170] However, as of 2019 Namibia continued to produce 750 tons of uranium annually making it a smaller than average exporter in the competitive world market.[171] Richalluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds.[172] While Namibia is known predominantly for its gem diamond and uranium deposits, a number of other minerals are extracted industrially such aslead,tungsten,gold,tin,fluorspar,manganese,marble,copper andzinc. Country's gold production in 2015 is 6 metric tons.[173] There are offshore gas deposits in the Atlantic Ocean that are planned to be extracted in the future.[174] According to "The Diamond Investigation", a book about the global diamond market, from 1978,De Beers, the largest diamond company, bought most of the Namibian diamonds, and would continue to do so, because "whatever government eventually comes to power they will need this revenue to survive".[175]
Although much of the world's diamond supply comes from what have been called Africanblood diamonds, Namibia has managed to develop a diamond mining industry largely free of the kinds of conflict, extortion, and murder that have plagued many other African nations with diamond mines. This has been attributed to political dynamics, economic institutions, grievances, political geography, and the effects of neighbourhoods, and is the result of a joint agreement between the government andDe Beers that has led to a taxable base, strengthening state institutions.[176]
Estimates updated in 2022 suggest that two exploration wells in the offshore Orange Basin could hold 2 and 3 billion barrels of oil, respectively. The expected revenue could transform Namibia's domestic economy and facilitate sustainable development goals.[177]
Domestic supply voltage is 220 V AC. Electricity is generated mainly by thermal and hydroelectric power plants. Non-conventional methods of electricity generation also play some role. Encouraged by the rich uranium deposits, in 2010 the Namibian government planned to erect its first nuclear power station by 2018. Uranium enrichment was also envisaged to take place locally.[178]
An example of Namibian wildlife, theplains zebra, is one focus of tourism.
Tourism is a major contributor (14.5%) to Namibia's GDP, creating tens of thousands of jobs (18.2% of all employment) directly or indirectly and servicing over a million tourists per year.[179] The country is a prime destination in Africa and is known forecotourism, which featuresNamibia's extensive wildlife.[180]
There are many lodges and reserves to accommodate ecotourists. Sport andtrophy hunting is also a large and growing component of the Namibian economy, accounting for 14% of total tourism in the year 2000, or 19.6 million U.S. dollars, with Namibia boasting numerous species sought after by international sport hunters.[181]
Namibia's primary tourism related governing body, theNamibia Tourism Board (NTB), was established by an Act of Parliament: theNamibia Tourism Board Act, 2000 (Act 21 of 2000). Its primary objectives are to regulate the tourism industry and to market Namibia as a tourist destination.[185] There are also a number oftrade associations that represent the tourism sector in Namibia, such as the Federation of Namibia Tourism Associations (the umbrella body for all tourism associations in Namibia), theHospitality Association of Namibia, the Association of Namibian Travel Agents, Car Rental Association of Namibia and the Tour and Safari Association of Namibia.[186]
The only bulk water supplier in Namibia isNamWater, which sells it to the respective municipalities which in turn deliver it through their reticulation networks.[187] In rural areas, the directorate of Rural Water Supply in theMinistry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform is in charge of drinking water supply.[187]
TheUN evaluated in 2011 that Namibia has improved its water access network significantly since independence in 1990. A large part of the population can not, however, make use of these resources due to the prohibitively high consumption cost and the long distance between residences and water points in rural areas.[187] As a result, many Namibians prefer the traditional wells over the available water points far away.[188]
Compared to the efforts made to improve access to safe water, Namibia is lagging behind in the provision of adequate sanitation.[189] This includes 298 schools that have no toilet facilities.[190] Over 50% of child deaths are related to lack of water, sanitation, or hygiene; 23% are due to diarrhea alone. The UN has identified a "sanitation crisis" in the country.[188]
Apart from residences for upper and middle class households, sanitation is insufficient in most residential areas. Private flush toilets are too expensive for virtually all residents intownships due to their water consumption and installation cost. As a result, access toimproved sanitation has not increased much since independence: in Namibia's rural areas 13% of the population had more than basic sanitation, up from 8% in 1990. Many of Namibia's inhabitants have to resort to "flying toilets", plastic bags to defecate into, which after use are flung into the bush.[191] The use of open areas close to residential land for urination and defecation is very common[192] and has been identified as a majorhealth hazard.[190]
Namibia has the second-lowest population density of any sovereign country, afterMongolia, as well as having the lowest population density of any sovereign country with a coastline.[193] In 2017 there were on average 3.08 people per km2.[194] Thetotal fertility rate in 2015 was 3.47 children per woman according to the UN which is lower than the average TFR in sub-Saharan Africa of 4.7.[195]
Namibia conducts a census every ten years. After independence the first Population and Housing Census was carried out in 1991; further rounds followed in 2001, 2011, and 2023 (delayed two years due to the COVID-19 pandemic and financial constraints).[196] The data collection method is to count every person resident in Namibia on the census reference night, wherever they happen to be. This is called thede facto method.[197] For enumeration purposes the country is demarcated into 4,042enumeration areas. These areas do not overlap with constituency boundaries to get reliable data for election purposes as well.[198]
The 2011 Population and Housing Census counted 2,113,077 inhabitants. Between 2001 and 2011 the annual population growth was 1.4%, down from 2.6% in the previous ten-year period.[199] In 2023, theNamibia Statistics Agency conducted another census, which counted 3,022,401 inhabitants.[200]
Whites (being mainly ofAfrikaner, German, British andPortuguese origin) make up 1.8% of the population. Although their proportion of the population decreased afterindependence due to emigration and lower birth rates, they still form the second-largest population ofEuropean ancestry, both in terms of percentage and actual numbers, inSub-Saharan Africa (after South Africa).[10] The majority ofNamibian whites and nearly all those who are ofmixed race speakAfrikaans and share similar origins, culture, and religion as the white and coloured populations of South Africa. A large minority of whites (around 30,000) trace their family origins back to theGerman settlers who colonised Namibia prior to the South African invasion during the First World War, and they maintain German cultural and educational institutions. Nearly all Portuguese settlers came to the country from the formerPortuguese colony of Angola.[202] The 1960 census reported 526,004 persons in what was then South West Africa, including 73,464 whites (14%).[203]
Namibia has free education for both primary and secondary education levels. Grades 1–7 are primary level, grades 8–12 are secondary. In 1998, there were 400,325 Namibian students in primary school and 115,237 students in secondary schools. The pupil-teacher ratio in 1999 was estimated at 32:1, with about 8% of the GDP being spent on education. Curriculum development, educational research, and professional development of teachers is centrally organised by the National Institute for Educational Development (NIED) in Okahandja.[204] Among sub-Saharan African countries, Namibia has one of the highest literacy rates.[205] According toCIA World Factbook, as of 2018 91.5% of the population age 15 and over can read and write.[205]
The Christian community makes up 80%–90% of the population of Namibia, with at least 75% beingProtestant, of which at least 50% areLutheran. Lutherans are the largest religious group, a legacy of the German andFinnish missionary work during the country's colonial times.[42] 10%–20% of the population holdindigenous beliefs.[208]
The majority of Namibians can speak and understand English and Afrikaans. Up to 1990, English,German, andAfrikaans were official languages. Long before Namibia's independence from South Africa, SWAPO was of the opinion that the country should become officially monolingual, choosing this approach in contrast to that of its neighbour South Africa (which grantedall 12 of its major languages official status), which it saw as "a deliberate policy of ethnolinguistic fragmentation."[212] Consequently, SWAPO instituted English as Namibia's sole official language, though only 2.3% of the population speaks it as a home language. Its implementation is focused on the civil service, education and the broadcasting system, especially the state broadcaster NBC.[213] Some other languages have received semi-official recognition by being allowed as medium of instruction in primary schools. Private schools are expected to follow the same policy as state schools, and "English language" is a compulsory subject.[213] Some critics argue that, as in other postcolonial African societies, the push for monolingual instruction and policy has resulted in a high rate of school drop-outs and of individuals whose academic competence in any language is low.[214]
According to the latest statistical data gathered in the most recent survey (2016), the linguistic landscape in the region has witnessed notable shifts since the 2011 census.Oshiwambo remains the predominant language, claiming the position of the most spoken language for a significant 49.7% of households, surpassing its previous standing.KhoeKhoegowab follows at 11.0%, while theKavango Languages, with a share of 10.4%, have also experienced a noteworthy increase. Afrikaans, identified as the country'slingua franca, maintains a considerable presence at 9.4%. The Herero Languages account for 9.2%, indicating a slight adjustment from the previous census.Silozi has seen a shift to 4.9%, and English, utilized primarily as a second language, stands at 2.3%. Other Languages collectively represent 1.0%, with San Languages at 0.7%, and German at 0.6%. The diversity of languages in the region is further demonstrated by the presence of Other African Languages at 0.5%,Setswana at 0.3%, and Other European Languages at 0.1%.[215]
Note: (1) Herero languages include: Otjiherero, Otjimbanderu, Oruzemba, Otjizimba, Otjihakahona, Otjindongona and Otjitjavikwa
(2) Kavango languages include: Rukwangali, Rushambyu, Rugciriku, Thimbukushu, Rumanyo and Rukavango
Most of the white population speaks English, Afrikaans or German. More than a century after the end of the German colonial era, German continues to play a role as a commercial language. As a home language, Afrikaans is spoken by 60% of the white community, German by 32%, English by 7% and Portuguese by 4–5%.[208] Geographical proximity to Portuguese-speaking Angola explains the relatively high number ofPortuguese speakers; in 2011 these were estimated to number 100,000.[216]
Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 64 years in 2017 – among the lowest in the world.[217]
Namibia launched a National Health Extension Programme in 2012[218] deployment 1,800 (2015) of a total ceiling of 4,800 health extension workers trained for six months in community health activities including first aid, health promotion for disease prevention, nutritional assessment and counseling, water sanitation and hygiene practices, HIV testing and community-based antiretroviral treatment.[219]
Namibia faces a non-communicable disease burden. The Demographic and Health Survey (2013) summarises findings on elevated blood pressure, hypertension, diabetes, and obesity:
Among eligible respondents age 35–64, 44% of women and 45% of men have elevated blood pressure or are currently taking medicine to lower their blood pressure.
49% of women and 61% of men are not aware that they have elevated blood pressure.
43% of women and 34% of men with hypertension are taking medication for their condition.
Only 29% of women and 20% of men with hypertension are taking medication and have their blood pressure under control.
6% of women and 7% of men are diabetic; that is, they have elevated fasting plasma glucose values or report that they are taking diabetes medication. An additional 7% of women and 6% of men are prediabetic.
67% of women and 74% of men with diabetes are taking medication to lower their blood glucose.
Women and men with a higher-than-normal body mass index (25.0 or higher) are more likely to have elevated blood pressure and elevated fasting blood glucose.[11]: 237
Estimated percentage of HIV among young adults (15–49) per country as of 2011[update]:[220]
15–50
TheHIV epidemic remains a public health issue in Namibia despite significant achievements made by theMinistry of Health and Social Services to expand HIV treatment services.[221] In 2001, there were an estimated 210,000 people living with HIV/AIDS, and the estimated death toll in 2003 was 16,000. According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, the epidemic in Namibia "appears to be leveling off."[222] As the HIV/AIDS epidemic has reduced the working-aged population, the number of orphans has increased. It falls to the government to provide education, food, shelter and clothing for these orphans.[223] A Demographic and Health Survey with an HIV biomarker was completed in 2013 and served as the fourth comprehensive, national-level population and health survey conducted in Namibia as part of the global Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) programme. The DHS observed important characteristics associated to the HIV epidemic:[11]: 169, 203, 218
Overall, 26 percent of men age 15–49 and 32 percent of those age 50–64 have been circumcised. HIV prevalence for men age 15–49 is lower among circumcised (8.0 percent) than among uncircumcised men (11.9 percent). The pattern of lower HIV prevalence among circumcised than uncircumcised men is observed across most background characteristics. For each age group, circumcised men have lower HIV prevalence than those who are not circumcised; the difference is especially pronounced for men age 35–39 and 45–49 (11.7 percentage points each). The difference in HIV prevalence between uncircumcised and circumcised men is larger among urban than rural men (5.2 percentage points versus 2.1 percentage points).
HIV prevalence among respondents age 15–49 is 16.9 percent for women and 10.9 percent for men. HIV prevalence rates among women and men age 50–64 are similar (16.7 percent and 16.0 percent, respectively).
HIV prevalence peaks in the 35–39 age group for both women and men (30.9 percent and 22.6 percent, respectively). It is lowest among respondents age 15–24 (2.5–6.4 percent for women and 2.0–3.4 percent for men).
Among respondents age 15–49, HIV prevalence is highest for women and men in Zambezi (30.9 percent and 15.9 percent, respectively) and lowest for women in Omaheke (6.9 percent) and men in Ohangwena (6.6 percent).
In 76.4 percent of the 1,007 cohabiting couples who were tested for HIV in the 2013 NDHS, both partners were HIV negative; in 10.1 percent of the couples, both partners were HIV positive; and 13.5 percent of the couples were discordant (that is, one partner was infected with HIV and the other was not).
As of 2015, the Ministry of Health and Social Services and UNAIDS produced aProgress ReportArchived 19 January 2022 at theWayback Machine in whichUNAIDS projected HIV prevalence among 15–49-year-olds at 13.3% [12.2–14.5%] and an estimated 210,000 [200,000–230,000] living with HIV.[224]
Themalaria problem seems to be compounded by the AIDS epidemic. Research has shown that in Namibia the risk of contracting malaria is 14.5% greater if a person is also infected with HIV. The risk of death from malaria is also raised by approximately 50% with a concurrent HIV infection.[225] The country had only 598 physicians in 2002.[226]
Namibian culture is similar to South African culture due to their tied history and family nationalities. Few Namibians express interest in permanently settling in other countries; they prefer the safety of their homeland, have a strong national identity, and enjoy a well-supplied retail sector.[227] Namibians are typically very social and are consistently among the highest alcohol consumption rates per capita, and ranked first in Africa for beer consumption per capita.[228]
Cricket in Namibia is also popular, withthe national side having qualified for2003 Cricket World Cup,2021 ICC T20 World Cup and2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup.[229] In December 2017, Namibia Cricket reached the final of the Cricket South Africa (CSA) Provincial One Day Challenge for the first time.[230] In February 2018, Namibia hosted the ICC World Cricket League Division 2 with Namibia, Kenya, UAE, Nepal, Canada and Oman to compete for the final two ICC Cricket World Cup Qualifier positions in Zimbabwe. Namibia also qualified the qualifiers of ICC T20 World Cup 2021 and entered the super 12 club.[230]
Compared to neighbouring countries, Namibia has a large degree of media freedom. Over the past years, the country usually ranked in the upper quarter of thePress Freedom Index ofReporters without Borders, reaching position 21 in 2010, being on par with Canada and the best-positioned African country.[233] The African Media Barometer shows similarly positive results. However, as in other countries, there is still mentionable influence of representatives of state and economy on media in Namibia.[234] In 2009, Namibia dropped to position 36 on the Press Freedom Index.[235] In 2013, it was 19th,[236] 22nd in 2014[237] and 23rd in 2019,[238] meaning that it is currently the highest ranked African country in terms of press freedom.
Although Namibia's population is fairly small, the country has a diverse choice of media; two TV stations, 19 radio stations (without counting community stations), 5 daily newspapers, several weeklies and special publications compete for the attention of the audience. Additionally, a mentionable amount of foreign media, especially South African, is available. Online media are mostly based on print publication content. Namibia has a state-owned press agency, calledNAMPA.[234] Overallc. 300 journalists work in the country.[239]
The first newspaper in Namibia was the German-languageWindhoeker Anzeiger, founded 1898. During German rule, the newspapers mainly reflected the living reality and the view of the white German-speaking minority. The black majority was ignored or depicted as a threat. During South African rule, the white bias continued, with mentionable influence of the Pretoria government on the South West African media system. Independent newspapers were seen as a menace to the existing order, and critical journalists were often threatened.[234][240][241]
Current daily newspapers are the private publicationsThe Namibian (English and other languages),Die Republikein (Afrikaans),Allgemeine Zeitung (German) andNamibian Sun (English) as well as the state-ownedNew Era (predominantly English). Except for the largest newspaper,The Namibian, which is owned by a trust, the other mentioned private newspapers are part of Democratic Media Holdings.[234] Other mentionable newspapers are the tabloidInformanté owned by TrustCo, the weeklyWindhoek Observer, the weeklyNamibia Economist, as well as the regionalNamib Times. Current affairs magazines includeInsight Namibia,Vision2030 Focus magazine[citation needed] andPrime FOCUS. TheSister Namibia magazine stands out as the longest running NGO magazine in Namibia, whileNamibia Sport is the only national sport magazine. Furthermore, the print market is complemented with party publications, student newspapers and PR publications.[234]
Radio was introduced in 1969, TV in 1981. The broadcasting sector today is dominated by the state-runNamibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). Thepublic broadcaster offers a TV station as well as a "National Radio" in English and nine language services in locally spoken languages. The nine private radio stations in the country are mainly English-language channels, except for Radio Omulunga (Oshiwambo) and Kosmos 94.1 (Afrikaans).Privately heldOne Africa TV has competed with NBC since the 2000s.[234][242]
Media and journalists in Namibia are represented by the Namibian chapter of theMedia Institute of Southern Africa and the Editors' Forum of Namibia. An independent media ombudsman was appointed in 2009 to prevent a state-controlled media council.[234]
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