TheAlbanians (Albanian:Shqiptarët) and their countryAlbania (Shqipëria) have been identified by many ethnonyms. The nativeendonym isShqiptar. The name "Albanians" (Latin:Albanenses/Arbanenses) was used in medieval Greek and Latin documents that gradually entered European languages from which other similar derivative names emerged.[1] Linguists believe that thealb part in the root word originates from anIndo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, meaning "hill, mountain", also present inAlps.[2] Through the root wordalban and itsrhotacized equivalentsarban,albar, andarbar, the term in Albanian became rendered asArbëreshë (Gheg Albanian:Arbëneshë) for the people andArbëria (Gheg Albanian:Arbënia) for the country.[1][3]
Contemporary Albanian language employs a different ethnonym, with modern Albanians referring to themselves asShqiptarë and to their country asShqipëria.[3] Two etymologies have been proposed for this ethnonym. One connects it to the verb 'pronounce' (shqiptoj), deriving fromLatinexcipere. In this instance, the Albanianendonym, likemany others, would originally have been a term connoting "those who speak [intelligibly, the same language]";[4] that is, "those who speakshqip," withshqip referring to the Albanian language itself. The other one derives the name from the Albanian word foreagle (shqiponjë).[4] The eagle was a common heraldic symbol for many Albanian dynasties in theLate Middle Ages and came to be a symbol of the Albanians in general; for example, the flag ofSkanderbeg, whose family's symbol was the blackdouble-headed eagle, as displayed on theAlbanian flag.[5][6][7][8][4]
Attested from 14th century onward, the placenameShqipëria and the ethnic demonymShqiptarë gradually replacedArbëria andArbëreshë amongstAlbanian speakers between the late 17th and early 18th centuries.[3][9] That era brought about religious and other sociopolitical changes.[3] As such a new and generalised response by Albanians based on ethnic and linguistic consciousness to this new and differentOttoman world emerging around them was a change in ethnonym.[3]
Arbën,Arbëneshë,Arbënuer (as rendered in northernGheg dialects) andArbër,Arbëreshë,Arbëror (as rendered in southernTosk dialects) are the old native terms denoting ancient and medieval Albanians used by Albanians.[3][10][11] The Albanian language was referred to asArbërisht (Gheg Albanian:Arbënisht).[12][13] While the country was calledArbëni,definite:Arbënia andArbëri, definite:Arbëria by Albanians.[3] These terms as an endonym and as native toponyms for the country are based on the same common rootalban and itsrhotacized equivalentsarban,albar, andarbar.[1] The national ethnonymAlbanian has derived fromAlbanoi,[14][15][16] anIllyrian tribe mentioned byPtolemy with their centre at the city ofAlbanopolis,[3][12] located in modern-day central Albania, near the city ofKrujë.[17][18] Thealb part in the root word for all these terms is believed by linguists be anIndo-European word for a type of mountainous topography, meaning "hill, mountain", also present inAlps.[2] TheLab, alsoLabe,Labi; Albanian sub-group and geographic/ethnographic region ofLabëri, definite:Labëria in Albania are also endonyms formed from the rootalb.[19] These are derived from the syllable clusteralb undergoing metathesis within Slavic tolab andreborrowed in that form into Albanian.[19]
Terms derived from all those endonyms as exonyms appear in Byzantine sources from the eleventh century onward and are rendered asAlbanoi,Arbanitai andArbanites and in Latin and other Western documents asAlbanenses andArbanenses.[1][20] The first Byzantine writers to mentionAlbanians in an ethnic sense areMichael Attaliates (in the bookHistory) andAnna Comnena (in the bookAlexiad), referring to them asAlbanoi andArbanitai, in the 11th century.[21][22] In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi" with a range of variants were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising name Illyrians.[23][24][25] The first reference to the Albanian language dates to the year 1285.[26]
The country was known in Byzantine sources asArbanon (Άρβανον) and in Latin sources asArbanum.[27][28] In medieval Serbian sources, the ethnonym for the country derived from the Latin term after undergoing linguistic metathesis was rendered asRabna (Рабна) andRaban (Рабан), while the adjective wasRabanski (Rабански).[27][28][29] From theseethnonyms, names for Albanians were also derived in other languages that were or still are in use.[3][10][4] In EnglishAlbanians; ItalianAlbanesi; GermanAlbaner; GreekArvanites,Alvanitis (Αλβανίτης) plural:Alvanites (Αλβανίτες),Alvanos (Αλβανός) plural:Alvanoi (Αλβανοί); TurkishArnaut,Arnavut;South Slavic languagesArbanasi (Арбанаси),Albanci (Албанци) and so on.[30][3][10][4][31] The termArbëreshë is still used as an endonym and exonym for Albanians that migrated toItaly during the Middle Ages, theArbëreshë.[4][32] It is also used as anendonym by the Arvanites inGreece. Within the Balkans,Aromanians still use a similar term,Arbinesh, in theAromanian language for contemporary Albanians.[4][33][34]
Arbanas (Арбанас), plural:Arbanasi (Арбанаси); is the oldethnonym that theSouth Slavs, such as theBulgarians andSerbs, used to denoteAlbanians, dating back to theMiddle Ages.[4]Arbanaski (Арбанаски),Arbanski (Арбански) andArbanaški (Арбанашки) are adjectives derived from those terms.[35] The termArbănas was also used by Romanians for Albanians.[4] They first appear with this ethnonym in a Bulgarian manuscript dated 1000–1018, during the reign ofTsar Samuel, in which Arbanasi (Albanians) are mentioned as being half-believers (i.e. non-Orthodox Christians).[36] The term was in use amongst South Slavs until the mid 20th century. The nameArbanasi is still used as an exonym for a small Albanian community in Croatia on the Dalmatian coast that migrated there during the 18th century.[37] In modern South Slavic languages the term isAlbanac.[38]
Arvanitis (Αρβανίτης), plural:Arvanites (Αρβανίτες); is a term that was historically used amongst the wider Greek-speaking population to describe an Albanian speaker regardless of their religious affiliations until the interwar period, along withAlvanoi (Αλβανοί).[39] The name was established inGreek language from the originalethnonymAlvanitis (Άλβανίτης), which in return derived fromAlvanos (Άλβάνος).[40] The name appears as the ethnonym ofAlbanians in medieval Byzantine sources, originally as "Arbanitai",[41][42] (in Greek language the letter 'b' is pronounced as 'v'; hence "Arvanitai") and was rendered in modern Greek as "Arvanites".[43]
Today, the termArvanites is used by Greeks to refer to descendants of Albanians orArbëreshë that migrated to southern Greece during the medieval era and who currently self identify as Greeks, as a result of assimilation.[44][30][45] Sometimes its variantAlvanites may be used instead.[30] In the region of Epirus within Greece today, the termArvanitis is still used for an Albanian speaker regardless of their citizenship and religion.[39] While the termArvanitika (Αρβανίτικα) is used within Greece for all varieties of the Albanian language spoken there, whereas within Western academia the term is used for the Albanian language spoken in Southern Greece.[46][47] Alongside these ethnonyms the termArvanitia (Αρβανιτιά) for the country has also been used by Greek society in folklore, sayings, riddles, dances and toponyms.[48] For example, some Greek writers used the termArvanitia alongside the older Greek termEpirus for parts or all of contemporary Albania and modernEpirus in Greece until the 19th century.[49]
Arnaut (ارناود),Arvanid (اروانيد),Arnavud (آرناوود), plural:Arnavudlar (آرناوودلار): modernTurkish:Arnavut, plural:Arnavutlar; are ethnonyms used mainly by Ottoman and contemporary Turks for Albanians withArnavutça being the name of the Albanian language.[40][50][51][52] These ethnonyms are derived from the Greek termArvanites and entered Turkish after the syllable clustervan was rearranged through metathesis tonav giving the final Turkish forms asArnavut andArnaut.[40][53] Meanwhile, in Greek the nameArvanitis was derived from the original nameAlvanitis [Άλβανίτης] (in return derived fromAlvanos [Άλβάνος]).[40]
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries due to socio-political disturbances by some Albanians in the Balkans the term was used as an ethnic marker for Albanians in addition to the usualmillet religious terminology to identify people in Ottoman state records.[50][54] While the term used in Ottoman sources for the country wasArnavudluk (آرناوودلق) for areas such as Albania, Western Macedonia, Southern Serbia, Kosovo, parts of northern Greece and southern Montenegro.[50][54][55] During the late Ottoman period, government officials used the termsArnavudlar (Albanians) andArnavud kavmı (the Albanian people) for the ethnic group, along with the terms Ghegs and Tosks for northern and southern Albanian ethno-cultural subgroups.[56] At the same time Albanian regions within the empire were referred to asArnavudluk (Albania) and the geographic termsGegalık (Ghegland) andToskalık (Toskland) were also used in government documents.[56] In modern TurkishArnavutluk refers only to the Republic of Albania.[57]
Historically as an exonym the Turkish termArnaut has also been used for instance by some Western Europeans as a synonym for Albanians that were employed as soldiers in the Ottoman army.[58] The termArnā’ūṭ (الأرناؤوط) also entered theArabic language as an exonym for Albanian communities that settled in the Levant during the Ottoman era onward, especially for those residing in Syria.[59] The termArnaut (Арнаут), plural:Arnauti (Арнаути) has also been borrowed into Balkan south Slavic languages like Bulgarian and within Serbian the word has also acquired pejorative connotations regarding Albanians.[31][40][60] During the Ottoman era, the name was used for ethnic Albanians regardless of their religious affiliations, just like it is today.[58]
Albanese andAlbanesi is anItalian surname meaning "Albanian", in reference to the Arbëreshë people (Italo-Albanians) ofsouthern Italy.[61] Among people who have the surname it is common in southern Italy and rare elsewhere in the country.[61] InVenice, the termalbanesoti (singular,albanesoto) was used in the 15th and 16th centuries for those Albanians and their descendants who had received Venetian citizenship and lived in Venetian territories in northern Italy.[62]
The termAlbanesi was used for some Balkan troops recruited (mid 18th - early 19th centuries) by theKingdom of Naples that indicated their general origins (without implying ethnic connotations) or fighting style, due to the reputation Albanians held of serving as mercenaries in Ottoman armies.[63]
Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi, Epirotarum principis ("History of the life and deeds of Scanderbeg, Prince of the Epirots") byMarin Barleti, 1508.
By theLate Middle Ages, during the period ofHumanism and theEuropean Renaissance, the termsepirot,Epir andgjuhë epirote (Latin:epirota,Epirus,lingua epirotica) were preferred in the intellectual, literary and clerical circles of the time, used as synonyms forarbën,Arbën,Dheu i Arbënit,Arbëní/rí,abënuer/arbëror,i arbënesh/arbëresh, and later, respectively forshqiptar,Shqipni/Shqipëri, (lingua)shqipe. Subsequently, this linguistic-historical ethnic association was faithfully followed also by theAlbanian intellectuals and Catholic clerics during the Middle Ages.[64] On a letter sent to the Prince ofTarantoGiovanni Orsini in 1460, the Albanian LordSkanderbeg wrote: “Se le nostre cronache non mentono, noi ci chiamiamo Epiroti” ("If our chronicles don't lie, we call ourselves Epiroti").[65] Published inRome in 1635 by the Albanian bishop and writerFrang Bardhi, the first dictionary of theAlbanian language was titled:Dictionarium latino-epiroticum ("Latin-Epirotan [Albanian] dictionary").[66]
Shqip(ë)tar andShqyptar (in northern Albanian dialects) is the contemporaryendonym used by Albanians for themselves whileShqipëria andShqypnia/Shqipnia are nativetoponyms used by Albanians to name their country.[3] All terms share the same Albanian rootshqipoj that is derived from the Latinexcipere with both terms carrying the meaning of "to speak clearly, to understand".[4] While the Albanian public favours the explanation that the self-ethnonym is derived from the Albanian word for eagleshqipe that is displayed on the national Albanian flag.[4]
The wordsShqipëri andShqiptar are attested from 14th century onward,[9] but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placenameShqipëria and the ethnic demonymShqiptarë gradually replacedArbëria andArbëreshë amongstAlbanian speakers in the Balkans.[3][9]Skipetar is a historical rendering orexonym of the termShqiptar by some Western European authors in use from the late 18th century to the early 20th century.[67] The termŠiptar (Шиптар), plural:Šiptari (Шиптари) and alsoŠiftari (Шифтари) is a derivation used by Balkan Slavic peoples and former states likeYugoslavia; Albanians consider this derogatory due to its negative connotations, preferringAlbanci instead.[31][68][69][70]
^abcdElsie 2005, pp. 3–4. "Their traditional designation, based on a root *alban- and its rhotacized variants *arban-, *albar-, and *arbar-, appears from the eleventh century onwards in Byzantine chronicles (Albanoi,Arbanitai,Arbanites), and from the fourteenth century onwards in Latin and other Western documents (Albanenses,Arbanenses)."
^abMalcolm 1998, p. 29. "Linguists believe that the ‘Alb-’ element comes from the Indo-European word for a type of mountainous terrain, from which the word ‘Alps’ is also derived."
^abcdefghijklLloshi 1999, p. 277. "The Albanians of today call themselvesshqiptarë, their countryShqipëri, and their languageshqipe. These terms came into use between the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries. Foreigners call themalbanesi (Italian),Albaner (German),Albanians (English),Alvanos (Greek), andArbanasi (old Serbian), the countryAlbania,Albanie,Albanien,Alvania, andAlbanija, and the languageAlbanese,Albanisch,Albanian,Alvaniki, andArbanashki respectively. All these words are derived from the nameAlbanoi of an Illyrian tribe and their centerAlbanopolis, noted by the astronomer of Alexandria, Ptolemy, in the 2nd century AD.Alban could he a plural ofalb-arb-, denoting the inhabitants of the plains (ÇABEJ 1976). The name passed over the boundaries of the Illyrian tribe in central Albania, and was generalised for all the Albanians. They called themselvesarbënesh,arbëresh, the countryArbëni,Arbëri, and the languagearbëneshe,arbëreshe. In the foreign languages, the Middle Ages denominations of these names survived, but for the Albanians they were substituted byshqiptarë,Shqipëri andshqipe. The primary root is the adverbshqip, meaning "clearly, intelligibly". There is a very close semantic parallel to this in the German nounDeutsche, "the Germans" and "the German language" (Lloshi 1984) Shqip spread out from the north to the south, andShqipni/Shqipëri is probably a collective noun, following the common pattern ofArbëni,Arbëri. The change happened after the Ottoman conquest because of the conflict in the whole line of the political, social, economic, religious, and cultural spheres with a totally alien world of the Oriental type. A new and more generalised ethnic and linguistic consciousness of all these people responded to this."
^abcdefghijkKamusella 2009, p. 241. "Prior to the emergence of the modern self-ethnonymShqiptarë in the mid-16th century (for the first time it was recorded in 1555 by the Catholic Gheg, Gjon Buzuku, in his missal), North Albanians (Ghegs) referred to themselves asArbën, and South Albanians (Tosks)Arbër. Hence, the self-ethnonymArbëreshë of the present-day Italo-Albanians (numbering about 100,000) in southern Italy and Sicily, whose ancestors, in the wake of the Ottoman wars, emigrated from their homeland in the 14th century. These self-ethnonyms perhaps influenced the Byzantine Greek Arvanites for ‘Albanians,’ which was followed by similar ones in Bulgarian and Serbian (Arbanasi), Ottoman (Arnaut), Romanian (Arbănas), and Aromanian (Arbineş). It is clear that scholars and Albanians themselves agree that they do not agree on any single etymology of the ethnonym ‘Albanian.’ A similar predicament is faced by the self-ethnonymShqiptarë. The most popular scholarly explanation is that it was formed by analogy to ‘Slavs’ (*Slovene), believed to be derived fromslovo (‘word’), and by extension, from *sluti (‘to speak clearly.’) The last explanation semantically contrasts with SlavicNiemiec (‘mute,’‘stammering,’‘babbling’), and Greek ‘barbarian’ (frombarbaros ‘those who stammer, babble’). Hence,Shqiptarë could be derived from Albanianshqipoi (from Latinexcipere) for ‘to speak clearly, to understand.’ The Albanian public favors the belief that their self-ethnonym stems fromshqipe (‘eagle’) found on the Albanian national flag."
^Elsie 2010, "Flag, Albanian", p. 140: "The eagle was a common heraldic symbol for many Albanian dynasties in the Late Middle Ages and came to be a symbol of the Albanians in general. It is also said to have been the flag of Skanderbeg...As a symbol of modern Albania, the flag began to be seen during the years of the national awakening and was in common use during the uprisings of 1909-1912. It was this flag that Ismail Qemal bey Vlora raised in Vlora on 28 November 1912 in proclaiming Albanian independence."
^The Flag Bulletin. Flag Research Center. 1987-01-01.History records that the 15th century Albanian national hero, Skanderbeg (i.e. George Kastriota), had raised the red flag with the black eagle over his ancestral home, the Fortress of Kruje
^Hodgkison, Harry (2005).Scanderbeg: From Ottoman Captive to Albanian Hero. Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-1-85043-941-7.
^abcDemiraj 2010, pp. 534. "The ethnic name shqiptar has always been discussed together with the ethnic complex: (tosk)arbëresh,arbëror,arbër — (gheg)arbënesh,arbënu(e)r,arbën; i.e. [arbën/r(—)]. p.536. Among the neighbouring peoples and elsewhere the denomination of the Albanians is based upon the root arb/alb, cp. Greek’Αλβανός,’Αρβανός "Albanian",‘Αρβανίτης "Arbëresh of Greece", SerbianAlbanac,Arbanas, Bulg., Mac.албанец, Arom.arbinés (Papahagi 1963 135), Turk.arnaut, Ital.albanese, GermanAlbaner etc. This basis is in use among the Arbëreshs of Italy and Greece as well; cp.arvanit, more rarelyarbëror by the arbëreshs of Greece, as againstarbëresh,arbëresh,bri(e)sh (besidegjegj — Altimari 1994 (1992) 53 s.). (Italy) (Kr. ?)árbanas, (Mandr.)allbanc, (Ukr.)allbanc(er) (Musliu — Dauti 1996) etj. For the various forms and uses of this or that variant see,inter alia, also Çabej SE II 6lss.; Demiraj 1999 175 ss. etj.
^"Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia" Jeffrey E. Cole - 2011, Page 15
^abMëniku & Campos 2012, p. 2. "Albanian is an Indo-European language, but like modern Greek and Armenian, it does not have any other closely related living language. Within the Indo-European family, it forms a group of its own. In Albanian, the language is called shqip. Albania is calledShqipëri, and the Albanians call themselvesshqiptarë. Until the fifteenth century the language was known asArbërisht orArbnisht, which is still the name used for the language in Italy and Greece. The Greeks refer to all the varieties of Albanian spoken in Greece as Arvanitika. In the second century AD, Ptolemy, the Alexandrian mathematician, astronomer and geographer, used the nameAlbanoi to refer to an Illyrian tribe that used to live in what is now central Albania. During the Middle Ages the population of that area was referred to asArbanori orAlbanon. It is clear that the wordsArbëresh,Arvanitika, and evenAlbanian andAlbania are all related to the older name of the language."
^Malcolm 1998, p. 29. "Nor is there any mystery about the origin of this name. In the second century Ptolemy referred to a tribe called the 'Albanoi', and located their town, 'Albanopolis', somewhere to the east of Durres."
^Ramadan Marmullaku - 1975,Albania and the Albanians - Page 5
^abViereck 1993, p. 122. "Die besondere ethnische Stellung der Labëri tritt auch in den Benennungenlab 'Labe',Labëri, Arbëri hervor, die von der Wurzel *alb-/*arb- gebildet sind und die alte Selbstbenennung der Albaner enthalten. Der Bewohner von Labëri wird auch jetzt lab, best.labi genannt, eig. ‘der Albaner’. Der Wandel *alb- >lab zeigt die für das Slawische typische metatheseerscheinung. [The particular ethnic position ofLabëri emerges also in the names lab, 'Labe', Labëri, Arbëri that from the root *alb-/*arb- formed and included the old self-designation of the Albanians. The residents of Labëri is also now lab, spec.labi called proper 'the Albanians'. The change *alb>lab shows the typical metathesis for the Slavic.]"
^Malcolm, Noel. "Kosovo, a short history". London: Macmillan, 1998, p.29 "The name used in all these references is, allowing for linguistic variations, the same: 'Albanenses' or 'Arbanenses' in Latin, 'Albanoi' or 'Arbanitai' in Byzantine Greek. (The last of these, with an internal switching of consonants, gave rise to the Turkish form 'Arnavud', from which 'Arnaut' was later derived.)"
^Michaelis Attaliotae:Historia, Bonn 1853, p. 8, 18, 297
^Comnena, Anna.TheAlexiad, Book IV, 7-8, Bonn 1836, p. 215‑221 and p. 293-294.
^abĆirković 2007, p. 19. "Die Albaner hatten im Verlauf des Mittelalters keinen eigenen Staat, doch besaßen sie ein kompaktes, mit einem Ethnonym versehenes Mutterland (Arbanon, Arbanum, Raban, Regnum Albaniae, Albania). [The Albanians had during the Middle Ages no state of their own, but they had a compact area, that provided with an ethnonym for the motherland (Arbanon, Arbanum, Raban, Regnum Albaniae, Albania).]"
^abMatica 2007, p. 12. "у наведеном цитату привлачи пажњу чињеница, да је Стефан Немања запосео ,,од Рабна оба Пилота’’. Назив ,,Рабна’’ или ,,Рабан’’, као што је већ у исторнографији истакнуто, изведен је метатезом од именнце ,,Арбаном’’ или ,,Арбанум’’, за које знају грчки и латински извори ис XI и XII века. [in the above quotation draws attention to the fact that Stefan Nemanja possessed ,,Rabna of both Pulats’’. The name ,,Rabna’’ or ,,Raban’’, as has already been pointed out in histriography, is derived from the metathesis of the term ,,Arbanom’’ or ,, Arbanum’’, which is known from Greek and Latin sources during the eleventh and twelfth century.]
^Naučna knjiga 1940, p. 729. "За време стварања српске државе Стефаном, сином Немањам, око 1215 год, областArbanum (спр.Рабан), у којој је био и овај арбанашки Београд [During the creation of the Serbian state Stefan, son of Nemanja, around 1215, the areaArbanum (Sr.Raban), in which this Albanian Berat was]"; p.744. "Наши облици Рабан и рабански постали су без сумње од лат.Arbanum на исти начин као што јеRab постало од лат. Arba… [Our formsRaban andrabanski come without doubt from the Latin.Arbanum in the same manner asRab came from the Lat.Arba...]"
^abcLiotta 2001, p. 198. "Among Greeks, the term "Alvanitis"—or "Arvanitis"—means a Christian of Albanian ancestry, one who speaks both Greek and Albanian, but possesses Greek "consciousness." Numerous "Arvanites" live in Greece today, although the ability to speak both languages is shrinking as the differences (due to technology and information access and vastly different economic bases) between Greece and Albania increase. The Greek communities of Elefsis, Marousi, Koropi, Keratea, and Markopoulo (all in the Attikan peninsula) once held significant Arvanite communities. "Arvanitis" is not necessarily a pejorative term; a recent Pan Hellenic socialist foreign minister spoke both Albanian and Greek (but not English). A former Greek foreign minister, Theodoros Pangalos, was an "Arvanite" from Elefsis."
^abcMurati 1991, p. 71. "emri etnik a nacional e shqiptarëve, përkundër trajtës së drejtë sllave Albanci, tash del të shqiptohet si Šiptari e Šipci me një konotacion përbuzës negativ, ashtu siç është përdorur në krye të herës te serbët edhe në kohën e Jugosllavisë së Vjetër bashkë dhe me formën Šiftari e Arnauti me po të njëtat konotacione pejorative. [ethnic name or the national one of Albanians, despite the right Slavic term Albanci, now appears to be pronounced as Šiptari of Šipci with a connotation that is contemptuously negative, as it is used in the very beginning of the Serbs era at the time of the old Yugoslavia together and the form Šiftari and Arnauti which have the same pejorative connotations.]"
^Koukoudis 2003, p. 34. "The Vlachs call the Albanian-speaking Orthodox ChristiansArbinéši, and it was under this name that the ancestors of the modern Albanians first appeared in the Middle Ages."
^Zbornik za Istocnjacku Istorisku i Knjizevnu Gradu 1940, p. 745. "Арбанас,арбанаски,арбански и арбанашки и све остале од исте основе изведене речи постала су одArbanus. [Arbanas,arbanaski,arbanski andarbanaški and all of the same grounds derived words have come fromArbanus.]"
^Barančić 2008, p. 551. "Možemo reći da svi na neki način pripadamo nekoj vrsti etničke kategorije, a često i više nego jednoj. Kao primjer navodim slučaj zadarskih Arbanasa. Da bismo shvatili Arbanase i problem njihova etnojezičnog (etničkog i jezičnog) identiteta, potrebno je ići u povijest njihova doseljenja koje seže u početak 18. st., tj. točnije: razdoblje od prve seobe 1726., razdoblje druge seobe od 1733., pa sve do 1754. godine koja se smatra završnom godinom njihova doseljenja. Svi su se doselili iz tri sela s područja Skadarskog jezera - Briske, Šestana i Livara. Bježeći od Turaka, kuge i ostalih nevolja, generalni providur Nicola Erizzo II dozvolio im je da se nasele u područje današnjih Arbanasa i Zemunika. Jedan dio stanovništva u Zemuniku se asimilirao s ondašnjim stanovništvom zaboravivši svoj jezik. To su npr. današnji Prenđe, Šestani, Ćurkovići, Paleke itd. Drugi dio stanovništva je nastojao zadržati svoj etnički i jezični identitet tijekom ovih 280 godina. Dana 10. svibnja 2006. godine obilježena je 280. obljetnica njihova dolaska u predgrađe grada Zadra. Nije bilo lako, osobito u samom početku, jer nisu imali svoju crkvu, škole itd., pa je jedini način održavanja njihova identiteta i jezika bio usmenim putem. We can say that all in some way belong to a kind of ethnic category, and often more than one. As an example, I cite the case of Zadar Arbanasi. To understand the problem of the Albanians and their ethnolinguistic (ethnic and linguistic) identity, it is necessary to go into the history of their immigration that goes back to the beginning of the 18th century., etc more precisely: the period from the first migration of 1726, the period of the second migration of 1733, and until 1754, which is considered to be the final year of their immigration. All they moved from three villages from the area of Lake Scutari - Briska, Šestan and Livara. Fleeing from the Ottomans, plague and other troubles, the general provider Nicola Erizzo II allowed them to settle in the area of today's Arbanasa and Zemunik. One part of the population in Zemunik became assimilated with the local population, forgetting their language. These are for example, today's Prenda, Šestani, Ćurkovići, Paleke etc. The second part of the population tried to maintain their ethnic and linguistic identity during these 280 years. On May 10, 2006 marked the 280th anniversary of their arrival in the suburb of Zadar. It was not easy, especially in the beginning, because they did not have their own church, school, etc., and is the only way to maintain their identity and language was verbally."
^Mirdita, Zef (1969). "Iliri i etnogeneza Albanaca". Iz istorije Albanaca. Zbornik predavanja. Priručnik za nastavnike. Beograd: Zavod za izdavanje udžbenika Socijalističke Republike Srbije. pp. 13–14.
^abBaltsiotis 2011. footnote. 9. "Until the Interwar periodArvanitis (pluralArvanitēs) was the term used by Greek speakers to describe an Albanian speaker regardless of his/hers religious background. In official language of that time the termAlvanos was used instead. The termArvanitis coined for an Albanian speaker independently of religion and citizenship survives until today in Epirus (see Lambros Baltsiotis and Léonidas Embirikos, "De la formation d’un ethnonyme. Le terme Arvanitis et son evolution dans l’État hellénique", in G. Grivaud-S. Petmezas (eds.),Byzantina et Moderna, Alexandreia, Athens, 2006, pp. 417-448."
^abcdeTheißen 2007, p. 90. "Der ursprüngliche Name Άλβανίτης (abgeleitet von Άλβάνος) wurde im Neugriechischen zu Άρβανίτης… In türkischer Vermittlung erfuhr die Silbe -van- eine Metathese zu -nav-, so dass die türkische Form des Namens für die Albaner arnavut bzw. arnaut Lautet. In dieser Form gelangte das Wort ins Bulgarische (BER I/1971: 15). [The original name Άλβανίτης (derived from Άλβάνος) was established in Modern Greek to Άρβανίτης .... In Turkish the syllable was experienced and mediated as -van- and by metathesis to -nav- so that the Turkish form of the name for the Albanians became respectively Arnavut or Arnaut. In this form, the word came into Bulgarian (BER I / 1971: 15).]"
^Malcolm, Noel. "Kosovo, a short history". London: Macmillan, 1998, p. 29 "The name used in all these references is, allowing for linguistic variations, the same: 'Albanenses' or 'Arbanenses' in Latin, 'Albanoi' or 'Arbanitai' in Byzantine Greek. (The last of these, with an internal switching of consonants, gave rise to the Turkish form 'Arnavud', from which 'Arnaut' was later derived.)"
^Robert Elsie (2010),Historical Dictionary of Albania, Historical Dictionaries of Europe, vol. 75 (2 ed.), Scarecrow Press,ISBN978-0810861886 "Their traditional designation, based on a root *alban- and its rhotacized variants *arban-, *albar-, and *arbar-, appears from the eleventh century onwards in Byzantine chronicles (Albanoi, Arbanitai, Arbanites), and from the fourteenth century onwards in Latin and other Western documents (Albanenses, Arbanenses)."
^2006, Carl Waldman, Catherine Mason; "Encyclopedia of European Peoples" - Volume 2 - Page 38
^Liakos 2012, p. 230. "The term "Arvanite" is the medieval equivalent of "Albanian." it is retained today for the descendants of the Albanian tribes that migrated to the Greek lands during a period covering two centuries, from the thirteenth to the fifteenth."
^Friedman 2009, pp. 218–219. "Botsi's chapter on Arvanitika also gives much useful information but contains some unfortunate errors. The northern dialect of Albanian is Geg, not Gjeg (47et passim), and the formulation "... Albanian does not constitute the direct descendent of an Indo-European language ..." is flat out wrong. While it is true that we are not certainwhich lndo-European language Albanian is directly descended from, it is as much the descendent of a single language as Greek or French. The claim that Greek and Latin are "at the origin of Albanian polygensis" (48) is mistaken. To be sure, Albanian was heavily influenced by Latin (much less by Greek, especially in the north), but the core grammar and vocabulary represent a distinct and different branch of Indo-European. The primary shape of the rootalban- in deriving the various forms of the relevant name is not clearly presented and the forms Shqipëria (GegShqipnia) andShqip(ë)tar are misspelled. The use ofArvanitika to cover all the Albanian-speakers of Greece no doubt reflects popular Greek usage, but in the North American academic community, this label is restricted to those dialects of Greece for which the term of self-ascription isArbërisht rather thanShqip. This latter term, which apparently came into use in the 15th century and is derived from an adverb meaning ‘[speak] clearly,’ is used by the Çams as well as in the villages near Florina, Konitsa, in Thrace and, we can add, in Mandres near Kilkis (an enclave that arrived from Mandrica in what is now Bulgaria as a result of the Balkan Wars, although the dialect is now moribund or dead [Eric Hamp, p.c., see Hamp 1965 for more data]). From a strictly dialectological point of view, what we can call Arvanitika proper (Southern Arvanitika in Botsi's terms) represents the southernmost extension of the Albanian dialect continuum with a consistent and gradual development of isoglosses. Arbëresh, on the other hand, shows a diversity of Tosk dialects, the ancestors of whose speakers must have come from all along the western part of the Northern Tosk-Lab-Çam-Arvanitika continuum (Eric Hamp, p.c.). While Arvanitika proper broke off directly from southern cam, the non-cam dialects of Epirus., Macedonia and Thrace are all the results of later northern Tosk migrations."
^Trudgill 1977, p. 32. "It is not too widely known that a majority of villages in the Athens area of Greece are inhabited by people of Albanian rather than Greek ethnic origin. These people are not recent immigrants, but the descendants of Albanians who entered the country at various times, for the most part between the 11th and 15th centuries. These Greek Albanians long retained a clearly separate ethnic identity, apparently, but gradually this identity has been eroded. Today they refer to themselves not as Albanians but as Arvanites, and call the language they speak not Albanian but Arvanitika. They are also very concerned to explain to outsiders that they are not only Arvanites but Greeks as well (see Trudgill and Tzavaras, forthcoming). The result of this development is that the main, perhaps only identifying characteristic of the Greek Albanians is now their language."
^Albanian-Greek Philological Association 1999. "Por edhe llojet e tjera folklorike, si p.sh.fjalët e urta,gojëdhënat,gjëagjëzat,vallet dhetoponimet na japin vetem trajtatΑρβανίτης,Αρβανιτιά,αρβανίτικος (arvanit,Arbëri,arvanit) [But other kinds of folklore, such asproverbs,legends,riddles,dances andtoponyms which give us only the formsΑρβανίτης,Αρβανιτιά,αρβανίτικος (arvanit,Arber, arvanit)]."
^Mikropoulos 2008, pp. 320–322. "During the period of the Ottoman domination the geographic entity of Epirus was a matter of great study for the scholars and the geographers of the time. The way the subject was dealt with was mainly a matter of the ideological perspective of each scholar and of his academic and cultural background, a factor that differentiates both them and the definitions that each one gives. It can be observed that scholars who were influenced by the Ancient Greeks favoured an approach based on Ptolemy's theory that the boundaries of Epirus are the Akrokeravnia mountain range, while those inclined to Byzantine opinions added areas of what was once New Epirus such as Avlona and Dyrrachio. All of them, though, were obliged to determine the differences between the ancient term of Epirus and the new termArvanitia orAlbania, the area of which was similarly disputed. We will confine ourselves to the references of a few scholars of the period of Ottoman domination, particularly those that belong chronologically near the era we are studying. For A. Psalida, "Albania, (former Illyricon and Epirus) is bordered to the east by the lower parts of Macedonia and Thessaly, to the north by Bosnan and Serbia, to the west by the Ionian Sea and to the south by the Gulf of Amvrakia", a perception without any ethnological basis which reflects the literature of the period. The writer uses the word Albania, the scholars’ way of expressing the older Greek termArvanitia, to refer to Epirus. "Albania consists of two toparchies or kingdoms, one of Epirus and one of Illyricon", the writer continues. With this revision he places the river Aoos as a border between Epirus and Illyricon - Ano Arvanitia (upper Arvanitia), a notion which his student Kosmas the Thesprotian also adopts to define Albania. "Albania to the west is bordered by the Adriatic Sea, to the east by the western parts of Macedonia, to the north by Bosnan, Dalmatia and Montenegro and to the south by Epirus, from which it is divided by the river Viosa or Vousa". In these descriptions it is obvious that Avlona is also included inside the borders of Epirus, although the ancient treatise clearly places it in Macedonia (Ptolemy). A few years later, at the time of the Greek revolution, Psalidas refutes, for obvious reasons, the termArvanitia and comments: "Epirus is wrongly referred to as Arvanitia, since no one there knows how to speak Arvanitika (Albanian)". The Bishop of Athens, Meletios, in the old and new Geography (1728) defines two terms,Arvanitia which constitutes the western part of Macedonia, and the Old Epirus. The two regions are divided by the river Kelidno, which the writer identifies as a river in the area of Liapouria. We observe that this opinion coincides with Ptolemy’s scheme (Γ′, 12, 4.) to which the latest term,Arvanitia, is now added. As a subdivision ofArvanitia, Meletios newly introduces the old-Byzantine term ofNew Epirus in which he includes the lands between Hemmara and Dirrachio. In "Modern Geography", the Dimitries restore the boundary to Akrokeravnia mountain, which was the ancient Greeks line of demarcation for the lands of the area. They place thelower part of Arvanitia (Kato Arvanitia) in western Macedonia. All the rest of the geographical or ethnological approaches of the 18th and 19th century are theoretical texts that duplicate more or less the views mentioned above. It can be said that in general there is a tendency to identify the political transformations that occur over time with the determination of geographical boundaries and names."
^abcAnscombe 2006, pp. 88. "This Albanian participation in brigandage is easier to track than for many other social groups in Ottoman lands, because Albanian (Arnavud) was one of the relatively few ethnic markers regularly added to the usual religious (Muslim-Zimmi) tags used to identify people in state records. These records show that the magnitude of banditry involving Albanians grew through the 1770s and 1780s to reach crisis proportions in the 1790s and 1800s."; p.107. "In light of the recent violent troubles in Kosovo and Macedonia and the strong emotions tied to them, readers are urged most emphatically not to draw either of two unwarranted conclusions from this article: that Albanians are somehow inherently inclined to banditry, or that the extent of Ottoman "Albania" orArnavudluk (which included parts of present-day northern Greece, western Macedonia, southern Montenegro, Kosovo, and southern Serbia) gives any historical "justification" for the creation of a "Greater Albania" today."
^"Malcolm, Noel. "Kosovo, a short history". London: Macmillan, 1998, p.29 "The name used in all these references is, allowing for linguistic variations, the same: 'Albanenses' or 'Arbanenses' in Latin, 'Albanoi' or 'Arbanitai' in Byzantine Greek. (The last of these, with an internal switching of consonants, gave rise to the Turkish form 'Arnavud', from which 'Arnaut' was later derived.)"
^abAnscombe 2006b, p. 772. "In this case, however, Ottoman records contain useful information about the ethnicities of the leading actors in the story. In comparison with ‘Serbs’, who were not a meaningful category to the Ottoman state, its records refer to ‘Albanians’ more frequently than to many other cultural or linguistic groups. The term ‘Arnavud’ was used to denote persons who spoke one of the dialects of Albanian, came from mountainous country in the western Balkans (referred to as ‘Arnavudluk’, and including not only the area now forming the state of Albania but also neighbouring parts of Greece, Macedonia, Kosovo, and Montenegro), organized society on the strength of blood ties (family, clan, tribe), engaged predominantly in a mix of settled agriculture and livestock herding, and were notable fighters — a group, in short, difficult to control. Other peoples, such as Georgians, Ahkhaz, Circassians, Tatars, Kurds, and Bedouin Arabs who were frequently identified by their ethnicity, shared similar cultural traits."
^Kolovos 2007, p. 41. "Anscombe (ibid., 107 n. 3) notes that Ottoman "Albania" orArnavudluk... included parts of present-day northern Greece, western Macedonia, southern Montenegro, Kosovo, and southern Serbia"; see alsoEl2. s.v. "Arnawutluk. 6. History" (H. İnalcık) and Arsh,He Alvania. 31.33, 39-40. For the Byzantine period. see Psimouli,Souli. 28."
^abMalcolm 2009, pp. 233. "And a further complication is introduced by the term "Arnaut", which could he used as a synonym for "Albanian", hut tended to suggest those Albanians (in the ethnic-linguistic sense) who acted as soldiers for the Ottomans — though these, it should be noted, included Catholic Albanians as well as Muslim ones. (When early reports refer to the local Ottoman forces, such as the force led by Mahmut Begolli [Mehmet Beyoğlu], pasha of Peja, they usually state that they consisted largely of Arnauts. Those Serb historians who claim that the terms Arnaut and Albanian did not mean ethnic Albanians, when applied to the supporters of Piccolomini, seem to have no difficulty in accepting that they did have that meaning, when applied to those fighting against him.)"
^Državnoj štampariji 1878, p. 347. "зову Арнаут, Арнаутка, па од тог назива доцније им потомци прозову се Арнаутовићи. [...] Арнаучићи зли, пакосни и убојити."
^Pappas 1981, p. 42. "In the eighty odd years during which Naples employed light infantry from the Balkans, the troops of the regiment and its successors were known popularly under three names... the seemingly national names of Greci, Albanesi, and Macedoni. These names did not, however, have their later ethnic connotations but were instead stylized terms that described the soldiers’ general origins or mode of fighting... The term Albanesi was used because that nation had achieved fame for its style of fighting as mercenaries of the Ottoman Empire. Muslim Albanians had become a mainstay of the sultan’s armies and were given the nickname "the Swiss of the Near East” by Europeans."
^Guzina 2003, pp. 32. "There is similar terminological confusion over the name for the inhabitants of the region. After 1945, in pursuit of a policy of national equality, the Communist Party designated the Albanian community as ‘Šiptari’ (Shqiptare, in Albanian), the term used by Albanians themselves to mark the ethnic identity of any member of the Albanian nation, whether living in Albania or elsewhere.… However, with the increased territorial autonomy of Kosovo in the late 1960s, the Albanian leadership requested that the term ‘Albanians’ be used instead—thus stressing national, rather than ethnic, self-identification of the Kosovar population. The term ‘Albanians’ was accepted and included in the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution. In the process, however, the Serbian version of the Albanian term for ethnic Albanians—‘Šiptari’—had acquired an openly pejorative flavor, implying cultural and racial inferiority. Nowadays, even though in the documents of post- socialist Serbia the term ‘Albanians’ is accepted as official, many state and opposition party leaders use the term ‘Šiptari’ indiscriminately in an effort to relegate the Kosovo Albanians to the status of one among many minority groups in Serbia. Thus the quarrel over the terms used to identify the region and its inhabitants has acquired a powerful emotional and political significance for both communities.
^Neofotistos 2010a, pp. 288. "Because of their allegedly rampant aggression and concerted attempts to destroy national integrity, Albanians in Macedonia are stigmatized with the pejorative termŠiptar (singular)/Šiptari (plural) as an ethic Other. Especially important for the purposes of this paper, as I show below, is the ambivalent character of the stereotypeŠiptar/i—after all, as Bhabha ([1994] 2004:95) reminds us "the stereotype [is] an ambivalent mode of knowledge and power," a "contradictory mode of representation, as anxious as it is assertive" (2004:100). In particular, the stereotype declares Albanians to be utterly incapable of participating in political and social life as Macedonian nationals who are committed to respecting and upholding state laws, and the territorial integrity and national sovereignty of Macedonia. In this sense, they are allegedly intrinsically "inferior"—"stupid," "dirty," "smelly," "uncultured," "backward," and so on. By the same token, however, and in the context of an ethnic-chauvinist and masculinist ideology (which I discuss in the next section), the stereotype also declares Albanians to be aggressive and capable of violating the territorial integrity of the Macedonian state and the moral integrity of Macedonian women. In this sense then, the stereotype invests Albanians with an excessive, disorderly energy that cannot be regulated and, hence, is dangerous (also see Lambevski 1997; for an analysis of the production and transgression of stereotypes, see Neofotistos 2004).
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