Nader rose to power during a period of chaos in Iran after a rebellion by theHotakiAfghans had overthrown the weak ShahSoltan Hoseyn (r. 1694–1722), while the arch-enemy of the Safavids, theOttomans, as well as theRussians had seized Iranian territory for themselves. Nader reunited the Iranian realm and removed the invaders. He became so powerful that he decided to depose the last members of the Safavid dynasty, which had ruled Iran for over 200 years, and become Shah himself in 1736. His numerous campaigns created a great empire that, at its maximum extent, briefly encompassed what is now part of or includes Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Oman, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, theNorth Caucasus, and thePersian Gulf, but his military spending had a ruinous effect on the Iranian economy.[1]
Nader idolizedGenghis Khan andTimur, the previous conquerors from Central Asia. He imitated their military prowess and—especially later in his reign—their cruelty. His victories during his campaigns briefly made himWest Asia's most powerful sovereign, ruling over what was arguably the most powerful empire in the world.[12]: 84 Following his assassination in 1747, his empire quickly disintegrated and Iran fell into a civil war. His grandsonShahrokh Shah was the last of his dynasty to rule, ultimately being deposed in 1796 byAgha Mohammad Khan Qajar, who crowned himself shah the same year.[13]
Nader Shah has been described as "the last great Asiatic military conqueror".[14]
Background
Nader belonged to theTurkomanAfshar tribe, which was one of the seven tribes[b] of theQizilbash who helped theSafavid dynasty establish their power in Iran.[15][16] The Afshar tribe had originally lived in theTurkestan region, but during the 13th-century they moved to theAzerbaijan region in northwestern Iran as a result of the expansion of theMongol Empire.[17] Nader was from the semi-nomadic Qirqlu clan of the Afshars, which lived in theKhorasan region of northeastern Iran. They had either settled there during the reign of the first SafavidShah Ismail I (r. 1501–1524), or had been resettled byShah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) to fend offUzbek attacks. Regardless, Afshars moving to Khorasan was already taking place by start of the 16th-century.[18][19]
TheAfshar dialect is categorized either as a dialect of theSouthern Oghuz group or a dialect ofAzerbaijani.[16] As he was growing up, he must have swiftly learned Persian, which was the language of the cities andhigh culture. But unless he was speaking to someone who spoke only Persian, he always preferred to communicate in Turkic.[20] His knowledge ofArabic is not documented, but it seems doubtful given his lack of interest in literature and theology.[21] Nader is known to have acquired reading and writing skills at some point in his life, probably later on.[20]
Approximately three million people or more were nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists in Iran in the beginning of the 18th-century, accounting for one-third of the country's population. Strong ties of kinship as well as customs of helping each other out with fights and finances kept their tribal groups united. Despite being partially or fully absorbed into the more progressive, urbanized Persian culture, many of them nevertheless identified culturally with theTurco-Mongol heritage that had been passed down from the era ofTimur andGenghis Khan. The settled population was seen by the semi-nomads and nomads as inferior. Nader was part of this heritage, which the British academicMichael Axworthy calls "paradoxical".[20]
Early life
Nader Shah was born in the fortress of Dastgerd[22] in the northern valleys ofKhorasan, a province in the northeast of the Iranian Empire.[23] His father, Emam Qoli, was aherdsman who may also have been a coatmaker.[4] His family lived a nomadic way of life. Nader was a long-waited son in his family.[24]
At the age of 13, his father died and Nader had to find a way to support himself and his mother. He had no source of income other than the sticks he gathered for firewood, which he transported to the market. Many years later, when he was returning in triumph from his conquest ofDelhi, he led the army to his birthplace and made a speech to his generals about his early life of deprivation. He said, "You now see to what height it has pleased the Almighty to exalt me; from hence, learn not to despise men of low estate." Nader's early experiences did not, however, make him particularly compassionate toward the poor. Throughout his career, he was only interested in his own advancement. Legend has it that in 1704, when he was about 17, a band of maraudingUzbeks invaded the province of Khorasan, where Nader lived with his mother. They killed many peasants. Nader and his mother were among those who were carried off into slavery. His mother died in captivity. According to another story, Nader managed to convinceTurkmens by promising help in the future. Nader returned to the province of Khorasan in 1708.[25]
At the age of 15, he enlisted as amusketeer for a governor. He rose the ranks and became the governor's right-hand man.[26]
Nader grew up during the final years of theSafavid dynasty which had ruled Iran since 1502. At its peak, under such figures asAbbas the Great, Safavid Iran had been a powerful empire, but by the early 18th century the state was in serious decline and the reigning shah,Soltan Hoseyn, was a weak ruler. When Soltan Husayn attempted to quell a rebellion by theGhilzai Afghans inKandahar, the governor he sent (Gurgin Khan) was killed. Under their leaderMahmud Hotaki, the rebellious Afghans moved westwards against the shah himself and in 1722 they defeated a force at theBattle of Gulnabad and then besieged the capital,Isfahan.[27] After the Shah failed to escape or to rally a relief force elsewhere, the city was starved into submission and Soltan Husayn abdicated, handing power to Mahmud. In Khorasan, Nader at first submitted to the local Afghan governor ofMashhad, Malek Mahmud, but then rebelled and built up his own small army. Soltan Husayn's son had declared himself ShahTahmasp II, but found little support and fled to theQajar tribe, who offered to back him. Meanwhile, Iran's imperial neighboring rivals, theOttomans and theRussians, took advantage of the chaos in the country to seize and divide territory for themselves.[28] In 1722, Russia, led byPeter the Great and further aided by some of the most notable Caucasian regents of the disintegrating Safavid Empire, such asVakhtang VI, launched theRusso-Iranian War (1722–1723) in which Russia captured swaths of Iran's territories in theNorth Caucasus,South Caucasus, as well as in northern mainland Iran. This included mainly, but was not limited to, the losses ofDagestan (including its principal city ofDerbent),Baku,Gilan,Mazandaran, andAstrabad. The regions to the west of that, mainly Iranian territories inGeorgia,Iranian Azerbaijan, andArmenia, were taken by the Ottomans. The newly gained Russian and Turkish possessions were confirmed and further divided amongst themselves in theTreaty of Constantinople (1724).[29] During the chaos, Nader cut a deal with Mahmud Hotaki to ruleKalat in the north of Iran. However, when Mahmud Hotaki began minting coins in his name and asked for everyone's allegiance, Nader refused.[26][page needed]
Tahmasp and the Qajar leader Fath Ali Khan (the ancestor ofAgha Mohammad Khan Qajar) contacted Nader and asked him to join their cause and drive theGhilzai Afghans out of Khorasan. He agreed and thus became a figure of national importance. When Nader discovered that Fath Ali Khan was in treacherous correspondence with Malek Mahmud and revealed this to the shah, Tahmasp executed him and made Nader the chief of his army instead. Nader subsequently took on the title Tahmasp Qoli (Servant of Tahmasp). In late 1726, Nader recapturedMashhad.[30]
Nader chose not to march directly on Isfahan. First, in May 1729, he defeated theAbdali Afghans nearHerat. Many of the Abdali Afghans subsequently joined his army. The new shah of the Ghilzai Afghans,Ashraf, decided to move against Nader but in September 1729, Nader defeated him at theBattle of Damghan and again decisively in November at Murchakhort. Ashraf fled and Nader finally entered Isfahan, handing it over to Tahmasp in December. The citizens' rejoicing was cut short when Nader plundered them to pay his army. Tahmasp made Nader governor over many eastern provinces, including his native Khorasan, and Tahmasp's sister was given in marriage to Nader's son. Nader pursued and defeated Ashraf, who was murdered by his own followers.[31] In 1738 Nader Shahbesieged and destroyed the last Hotaki seat of power atKandahar. He built a new city near Kandahar, which he named "Naderabad".[1]
First Ottoman campaign and the reconquest of the Caucasus
Court scene withTahmasp II in the centre, and Nader to his left. From an illustrated Indian copy of theJahangosha-ye Naderi, dated 1757/58
In the spring of 1730, Naderattacked Iran's archrival theOttomans and regained most of the territory lost during the recent chaos. At the same time, the Abdali Afghans rebelled and besieged Mashhad, forcing Nader to suspend his campaign and save his brother, Ebrahim. It took Nader fourteen months to crush this uprising.[32]
Relations between Nader and the Shah had declined as the latter grew jealous of his general's military successes. While Nader was absent in the east, Tahmasp tried to assert himself by launchinga foolhardy campaign to recaptureYerevan. He ended up losing all of Nader's recent gains to the Ottomans, and signed a treaty cedingGeorgia andArmenia in exchange forTabriz.[33] Nader, furious, saw that the moment had come to ease Tahmasp from power. He denounced the treaty, seeking popular support for a war against the Ottomans. In Isfahan, Nader got Tahmasp drunk then showed him to the courtiers asking if a man in such a state was fit to rule. In 1732 he forced Tahmasp to abdicate in favour of the Shah's baby son, Abbas III, to whom Nader becameregent.[34]
Nader decided, as he continued the 1730–1735 war, that he could win back the territory in Armenia and Georgia by seizing OttomanBaghdad and then offering it in exchange for the lost provinces, but his plan went badly amiss when his army was routed by the Ottoman generalTopal Osman Pasha near the city in 1733.[35] Nader's troops under the command ofMohammad Khan Baloch to besiege finally, after hours of fighting, were defeated and retreated.[36] This was the only time that he was ever defeated in battle. Nader decided he needed to regain the initiative as soon as possible to save his position because revolts were already breaking out in Iran. He faced Topal again with a larger force and defeated and killed him. He then besieged Baghdad, as well asGanja in the northern provinces, earning a Russian alliance against the Ottomans. Nader scored a great victory over a superior Ottoman force atBaghavard and by the summer of 1735, Iranian Armenia and Georgia were his again. In March 1735, he signeda treaty with theRussians in Ganja by which the latter agreed to withdraw all of their troops from Iranian territory,[37][38] those which had not been ceded back by the 1732Treaty of Resht yet, resulting in the reestablishment of Iranian rule over all of theCaucasus and northern mainland Iran again.
Shah of Iran
Nader suggested to his closest intimates, after a great hunting party on theMoghan plains (presently split between Azerbaijan and Iran), that he should be proclaimed the new king (shah) in place of the young Abbas III.[39] The small group of close intimates, Nader's friends, includedTahmasp Khan Jalayer andHasan-Ali Beg Bestami.[39] Following Nader's suggestion, the group did not "demur", and Hasan-Ali remained silent.[39] When Nader asked him why he remained silent, Hasan-Ali replied that the best thing for Nader to do would be assembling all leading men of the state, in order to receive their agreement in "a signed and sealed document of consent".[39] Nader approved with the proposal, and the writers of the chancellery, which included the court historianMirza Mehdi Khan Astarabadi, were instructed with sending out orders to the military, clergy and nobility of the nation to summon at the plains.[39] The summonses for the people to attend had gone out in November 1735, and they began arriving in January 1736.[40] In the same month of January 1736, Nader held aqoroltai (a grand meeting in the tradition ofGenghis Khan andTimur) on the Moghan plains. The Moghan plain was specifically chosen for its size and "abundance offodder".[41] Everyone agreed to the proposal of Nader becoming the new king, many—if not most—enthusiastically, the rest fearing Nader's anger if they showed support for the deposed Safavids. Nader was crowned Shah of Iran on 8 March 1736, a date hisastrologers had chosen as being especially favorable,[42] in attendance of an "exceptionally large assembly" composed of the military, religious and nobility of the nation, as well as the Ottoman ambassador Ali Pasha.[43]
He cut a deal with notables and the clergy that he would only assume the position of Shah if they promised to refrain from cursingOmar andUthman, avoid beating themselves to draw blood at theAshura festival, acceptSunni practices as legitimate, and to obey Nader's children and relatives after his death, thereby setting up a dynasty in his name. He was effectively realigning Persia with Sunni Islam. The notables accepted.[44]
Religious policy
Nader Shah and two of his sons
The Safavids had forcedShia Islam as the state religion of Iran. Nader may have been brought up as a Shiite on the basis of his name and background[6] but later replaced Shia law with a version that was more sympathetic and compatible with Sunni law he called the "Ja'fari school" in an effort to disassociate radical Shia Islam from the state in part to please his supporters and also to improve relationships with other Sunni powers.[45] as he gained power and began to push into theOttoman Empire. He believed that Safavid Shia Islam had intensified the conflict with the Sunni Ottoman Empire. His army was a mix of Shia andSunni Muslims (with a notable minority of Christians andKurds) and included his ownQizilbash as well asUzbeks,Afghans, ChristianGeorgians, andArmenians,[46][47] and others. He wanted Iran to adopt a form of religion that would be more acceptable toSunni Muslims and suggested that Iran adopt a form of Shia Islam he called "Ja'fari", in honour of the sixth ShiaimamJa'far al-Sadiq. He banned certain Shia practices which were particularly offensive toSunni Muslims, such as the cursing of the first three caliphs of Islam. Personally, Nader is said to have been indifferent towards religion and the FrenchJesuit who served as his personalphysician reported that it was difficult to know which religion he followed and that many who knew him best said that he had none.[48] Nader hoped that "Ja'farism" would be accepted as a fifth school (madhhab) ofSunni Islam and that the Ottomans would allow its adherents to go on thehajj, or pilgrimage, toMecca, which was within their territory. In the subsequent peace negotiations, the Ottomans refused to acknowledge Ja'farism as a fifthmazhab but they did allow Iranian pilgrims to go on thehajj.[49] Nader was interested in gaining rights for Iranians to go on thehajj in part because of revenues from the pilgrimage trade.[1] Nader's other primary aim in his religious reforms was to weaken the Safavids further since Shia Islam had always been a major element in support for the dynasty. He had a Shiamullah of Iran strangled after he was heard expressing support for the Safavids. Among his reforms was the introduction of what came to be known as thekolah-e Naderi. This was a hat with four peaks which symbolised the firstfour caliphs of Islam.[1] Alternatively, it has also been recorded that the four peaks symbolised the territories ofPersia,India,Turkestan, andKhwarezm.[50]
In 1741, eight Muslim scholars and three European and five Armenian priests translated the Koran and the Gospels[clarification needed]. The commission was supervised byMīrzā Moḥammad Mahdī Khan Monšī, the court historiographer and author of the Tarikh-e-Jahangoshay-e-Naderi (History of Nader Shah's Wars). Finished translations were presented to Nāder Shah in Qazvīn in June 1741, who, however, was not impressed.[citation needed]
Nader diverted money going to Shia mullahs and redirected it to his army instead.[26][page needed]
In 1738, Nader Shah conquered Kandahar, the last outpost of theHotaki dynasty. His thoughts now turned to theMughal Empire of India. This once powerful Muslim state to the east was falling apart as the nobles became increasingly disobedient and local opponents such as theSikhs andHinduMarathas of theMaratha Empire were expanding upon its territory. Its rulerMuhammad Shah was powerless to reverse this disintegration. Nader asked for the Afghan rebels to be handed over, but the Mughal emperor refused. Nader used the pretext of his Afghan enemies taking refuge in India to cross the border and invade the militarily weak but still extremely wealthy eastern empire,[51] and in a brilliant campaign against the governor of Peshawar he took a small contingent of his forces on a daunting flank march through nearly impassable mountain passes and took the enemy forces positioned at the mouth of theKhyber Pass completely by surprise, utterly beating them despite being outnumbered two-to-one. This led to the capture ofGhazni,Kabul,Peshawar,Sindh, andLahore. As he moved into the Mughal territories, he was loyally accompanied by hisGeorgian subject and future king ofeastern Georgia,Erekle II, who led a Georgian contingent as a military commander as part of Nader's force.[52] Following the prior defeat of Mughal forces, he then advanced deeper into India, crossing the riverIndus before the end of year. The news of the Iranian army's swift and decisive successes against the northern vassal states of the Mughal empire caused much consternation in Delhi, prompting the Mughal ruler,Muhammad Shah, to raise an army of some 300,000 men and march to confront Nader Shah.[53]
The flank march of Nader's army atBattle of Khyber pass has been called a "military masterpiece" by the Russian general and historian,Kishmishev
Despite being outnumbered by six to one, Nader Shah crushed the Mughal army in less than three hours at the hugeBattle of Karnal on 13 February 1739. After this spectacular victory, Nader captured Mohammad Shah and enteredDelhi.[54] When a rumour broke out that Nader had been assassinated, some Indians attacked and killed Iranian troops; by midday 900 Iranian soldiers had been killed.[55] Nader, furious, reacted by ordering his soldiers tosack the city. During the course of one day (22 March) 20,000 to 30,000 Indians were killed by the Iranian troops and as many as 10,000 women and children were taken as slaves, forcing Mohammad Shah to beg Nader for mercy.[56][55]
In response, Nader Shah agreed to withdraw, but Mohammad Shah paid the consequence in handing over the keys of his royal treasury, and losing even the fabledPeacock Throne to the Iranian emperor.[57] The Peacock Throne, thereafter, served as a symbol of Iranian imperial might. It is estimated that Nader took away with him treasures worth as much as seven hundred million rupees. Among a trove of other fabulous jewels, Nader also looted theKoh-i-Noor (meaning "Mountain of Light" in Persian) andDarya-ye Noor (meaning "Sea of Light")diamonds. The Iranian troops left Delhi at the beginning of May 1739, but before they left, he ceded back to Muhammad Shah all territories to the east of the Indus which he had overrun.[58] The booty they had collected was loaded on 700 elephants, 4,000 camels, and 12,000 horses.[55]
Nader Shah left the area via the mountains in NorthernPunjab. Learning of his planned route, the Sikhs started gathering light cavalry bands, and planned an attack to capture his plunder.[59] TheSikhs fell upon Nadir's army in theChenab valley, and seized a large amount of the booty and freed most of the slaves in captivity.[60][61][62][63] The Persians, however, were unable to pursue the Sikhs, because they were overloaded with the remaining plunder and overwhelmed by the terrible heat of that May.[64] Traveling with an advance guard, Nader Shah stopped atLahore where he learned of his losses.[64][65] He traveled back to his forces, accompanied by GovernorZakariya Khan. Upon learning about the Sikhs, he told Khan that these rebels would one day rule the land.[citation needed] Still, the remaining plunder his forces had seized from India was so much that Nader was able to stoptaxation in Iran for three years following his return.[66][67][68]
At theBattle of Karnal, Nader crushed an enormous Mughal army that was six times greater than his own
Many historians believe that Nader attacked the Mughal Empire to give his country some breathing space after previous turmoil. His successful campaign and replenishment of funds meant that he could continue his wars against Iran's archrival and neighbour, theOttoman Empire,[26][page needed] as well as the campaigns in theNorth Caucasus. Nader also secured one of the Mughal emperor's daughters, Jahan Afruz Banu Begum, as a bride for his youngest son.
Central Asia, North Caucasus, Arabia, and the second Ottoman war
Silver coin of Nader Shah, minted in Dagestan, dated 1741/2 (left = obverse; right = reverse)Portrait of Reza Qoli Mirza Afshar
The Indian campaign was the zenith of Nader's career. Afterwards he became increasingly despotic as his health declined markedly. Nader had left his son Reza Qoli Mirza to rule Iran in his absence. Reza had behaved highhandedly and somewhat cruelly but he had kept the peace in Iran. Having heard rumours that his father had died, he had made preparations for assuming the crown. These included the murder of the former shah Tahmasp and his family, including the nine-year-old Abbas III. On hearing the news, Reza's wife, who was Tahmasp's sister, committed suicide. Nader was not impressed with his son's waywardness and reprimanded him, but he took him on his expedition to conquer territory inTransoxiana. In 1740, he conquered theKhanate of Khiva. After the Iranians had forced theUzbekKhanate of Bukhara to submit, Nader wanted Reza to marry the khan's elder daughter because she was a descendant of his hero Genghis Khan, but Reza flatly refused and Nader married the girl himself.[69]
With regard to Central Asia, Nader viewedMerv (present-dayBayramali,Turkmenistan) vital to his north-eastern defenses. He also tried to secure the ruler of Bukhara as his vassal, imitating previous great conquerors ofMongol-Timurid descent. According to a British scholar Peter Avery, Nader's attitude towards Bukhara was irredentist to an extent that he "may even have thought that, if only the Ottoman power in the west could be contained, he might make Bukhara a base for conquests further afield in Central Asia". Nader dispatched numerous artisans to Merv in a move to prepare for an improbable conquest of distantKashgaria. Such a campaign did not materialize, but Nader frequently sent funds and engineers to Merv trying to restore its prosperity and rebuild its ill-fated dam. Merv, however, did not become prosperous.[70]
TheBattle of Kars (1745) was the last major field battle Nader fought in his military career
Nader now decided to punishDagestan for the death of his brother Ebrahim Qoli on a campaign a few years earlier. In 1741, while Nader was passing through the forest ofMazanderan on his way to fight the Dagestanis, an assassin took a shot at him but Nader was only lightly wounded. He began to suspect his son was behind the attempt and confined him toTehran. Nader's increasing ill health made his temper ever worse. Perhaps it was his illness that made Nader lose the initiative in his war against theLezgin tribes of Dagestan. Frustratingly for him, they resorted to guerrilla warfare and the Iranians could make little headway against them.[71] Though Nader managed to take most of Dagestan during his campaign, the effective guerrilla warfare as deployed by the Lezgins, but also theAvars andLaks made the Iranian re-conquest of the particular North Caucasian region a short lived one; several years later, Naderwas forced to withdraw. During the same period, Nader accused his son of being behind the assassination attempt in Mazanderan. Reza Qoli angrily protested his innocence, but Nader had him blinded as punishment, and ordered his eyes to be brought to him on a platter. When his orders had been carried out, however, Nader instantly regretted it, crying out to his courtiers, "What is a father? What is a son?"[72]
Soon afterwards, Nader started executing the nobles who had witnessed his son's blinding. In his last years, Nader became increasinglyparanoid, ordering the assassination of large numbers of suspected enemies. Following the orders of Nadir Shah, his soldiers executed 150 monks atMonastery of Saint Elijah after they refused to convert toIslam.[73] With the wealth he gained, Nader started to build an Iraniannavy. With lumber fromMazandaran, he built ships inBushehr. He also purchased thirty ships in India.[1] He recaptured the island ofBahrain from the Arabs. In 1743, he conqueredOman and its main capitalMuscat. In 1743, Naderstarted another war against theOttoman Empire. Despite having a huge army at his disposal, in this campaign Nader showed little of his former military brilliance. It ended in 1746 with the signing of a peace treaty, theTreaty of Kerden, in which the Ottomans agreed to let Nader occupyNajaf.[74]
Domestic policies
Nader changed the Iranian coinage system. He minted silver coins, calledNaderi, that were equal to the Mughalrupee.[1] Nader discontinued the policy of paying soldiers based on land tenure.[1] Like the late Safavids he resettled tribes. Nader Shah transformed theShahsevan, a nomadic group living around Azerbaijan whose name literally means "shah lover", into a tribal confederacy which defended Iran against the neighbouring Ottomans andRussians.[75][76] In addition, he increased the number of soldiers under his command and reduced the number of soldiers under tribal and provincial control.[1] His reforms may have strengthened the country, but they did little to improve Iran's suffering economy.[1] He also always paid his troops on time, no matter what.[77]
Foreign policies
In order to construct a broad political framework that could link him to the Ottomans and Mughals more closely than the Safavids had been, Nader Shah started creating new concepts. One of these was a focus on a shared Turkmen descent, by having several official documents evoke how Nader Shah, the Ottomans, Uzbeks, and Mughals all had a shared Turkmen background. In a broad sense, this concept mirrored the origin fables of 15th centuryAnatolian Turkmen dynasties.[1] The Ottomans, however, were left unimpressed with Nader Shah's new concept. According to the modern historian Ernest Tucker, comparing this concept to an early version of "pan-Turkism" would be "anachronistic and misleading." He adds that this was part of unpolished drafts of concepts that would get polished throughout the 11 years of Nader Shah's reign, and would include wide political and religious aspects.[78]
Nader's concepts regarding the Ja'farism and common Turkmen descent were directed primarily at the Ottomans and Mughals. He may have perceived a need to unite disparate components of theummah against the expanding power of Europe at that time, however his view of Muslim unity was different from later concepts of it.[1]
He proposed a peace treaty with theOttomans, in it, he proclaimed the Persians wanted theJa'fari Maddhab to be incorporated as aMadhhab of Islam. While only a nominal claim, Nader's army was increasingly drawing from Sunni Afghans,Kurds,Turkmens,Baloch, and others who were happy with a less sectarian Persia. Externally he presented Persia as completely sympathetic to Sunnis. He probably did this for political reasons in order to increase his legitimacy within the Muslim world; he would have never been accepted if he remained a radicalShia Muslim like theSafavid Shahs. Though as stated countless times before, internally, he was probably agnostic.[26][page needed]
Whenever Nader laid siege to a city, he would construct a city of his own outside the walls. His encampment was filled with markets, mosques, bathhouses, coffeehouses, and stables. He did this to show the besieged his army would be there for the long haul, to prevent diseases from spreading within his troops' ranks, and to occupy his troops' time.[26][page needed]
Death and legacy
A Western view of Nader in his later years from a book byJonas Hanway (1753). The background shows a tower of skulls.[79]Nader Shah's dagger with a small portion of his jewelry. Now part of theIranian Crown Jewels.
Nader became increasingly cruel as a result of his illness and his desire to extort more and more tax money to pay for his military campaigns. New revolts broke out and Nader crushed them ruthlessly, building towers from his victims' skulls in imitation of his hero Timur. In 1747, Nader set off for Khorasan, where he intended to punishKurdishrebels. Some of his officers and courtiers feared he was about to execute them and plotted against him, including two of his relatives: Muhammad Quli Khan, the captain of the guards, and Salah Khan, the overseer of Nader's household. Nader Shah was assassinated on 20 June 1747,[80] atQuchan inKhorasan. He was surprised in his sleep by around fifteen conspirators, and stabbed to death. Nader was able to kill two of the assassins before he died.[81]
The most detailed account of Nader's assassination comes from Père Louis Bazin, Nader's physician at the time of his death, who relied on the eyewitness testimony of Chuki, one of Nader's favouriteconcubines:
Around fifteen of the conspirators were impatient or merely eager to distinguish themselves, and so turned up prematurely at the agreed meeting place. They entered the enclosure of the royal tent, pushing and smashing their way through any obstacles, and penetrated into the sleeping quarters of that ill-starred monarch. The noise they made on entering woke him up: 'Who goes there?' he shouted out in a roar. 'Where is my sword? Bring me my weapons!' The assassins were struck with fear by these words and wanted to escape, but ran straight into the two chiefs of the murder-conspiracy, who allayed their fears and made them go into the tent again. Nader Shah had not yet had time to get dressed; Muhammad Quli Khan ran in first and struck him with a great blow of his sword which felled him to the ground; two or three others followed suit; the wretched monarch, covered in his own blood, attempted – but was too weak – to get up, and cried out, 'Why do you want to kill me? Spare my life and all I have shall be yours!' He was still pleading when Salah Khan ran up, sword in hand and severed his head, which he dropped into the hands of a waiting soldier. Thus perished the wealthiest monarch on earth.[55]
After his death, he was succeeded by his nephew Ali Qoli, who renamed himselfAdel Shah ("righteous king"). Adel Shah was probably involved in the assassination plot.[37] Adel Shah was deposed within a year. During the struggle between Adel Shah, his brotherIbrahim Khan and Nader's grandsonShah Rukh and almost all provincialgovernors declaredindependence, established their own states, and the entire Empire of Nader Shah fell intoanarchy.Oman and the Uzbek khanates ofBukhara andKhiva regained independence, while theOttoman Empire regained the lost territories inWestern Armenia andMesopotamia. Finally,Karim Khan founded theZand dynasty and became ruler of Iran by 1760.Erekle II andTeimuraz II, who, in 1744, had been made the kings ofKakheti andKartli respectively by Nader himself for their loyal service,[82] capitalized on the eruption of instability, and declaredde facto independence. Erekle II assumed control over Kartli after Teimuraz II's death, thus unifying the two as theKingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, becoming the first Georgian ruler in three centuries to preside over a politically unified eastern Georgia,[83] and due to the frantic turn of events in mainland Iran he would be able to maintain its autonomy until the advent of the IranianQajar dynasty.[84] The rest of the Iranian territories in the Caucasus, comprising modern-dayAzerbaijan,Armenia, andDagestan broke away into variouskhanates. Until the advent of theZands and Qajars, its rulers had various forms of autonomy, but stayedvassals andsubjects to the Iranian king.[85] In the far east,Ahmad Shah Durrani had already proclaimed independence, marking the foundation of modernAfghanistan. Iran finally lostBahrain toHouse of Khalifa duringInvasion of Bani Utbah in 1783.
Nader Shah was well known to the European public of the time. In 1768,Christian VII of Denmark commissionedSir William Jones to translate aPersian language biography of Nader Shah written by his MinisterMirza Mehdi Khan Astarabadi intoFrench.[86] It was published in 1770 asHistoire de Nadir Chah.[87] Nader's Indian campaign alerted theEast India Company to the extreme weakness of the Mughal Empire and the possibility of expanding to fill the power vacuum. Without Nader, "eventual British [rule in India] would have come later and in a different form, perhaps never at all – with important global effects".[88]Joseph Stalin, leader of theSoviet Union is said to have admired him and called him a teacher (alongsideIvan the Terrible).[89]
The military success of Nader was nearly unprecedented for Muslim Shahs.[26][page needed]
Flag
Nader Shah consciously avoided using the colour green, as green was associated withShia Islam and theSafavid dynasty.[90]
Personality
The strong character of Nader Shah is indicated by the fact that having achieved much fame and glory, he did not allow his pleasers to find great ancestors in the darkness of his origin. He never boasted of a proudgenealogy; on the contrary, he often spoke of his simple origin. Even his chronicler was forced to limit himself by saying that diamond was valued not by the rock where it had been found, but by its splendor. There is a story that says, having demanded the daughter of his defeated enemyMuhammad Shah, theEmperor of Delhi, to marry his son Nasrullah, he received the answer that a royal lineage up to the 7th generation was required for marriage with a princess from theHouse of Timur.[91]
"Tell him," Nader replied, "that Nasrullah is the son of Nader Shah, the son and grandson of the sword, and so on, not until the 7th, but until the 70th generation."[91] Nader had the greatest contempt for the weak, depravedMuhammad Shah, who, according to the local chronicler of that era, "was always with his mistress in his arms and a glass in his hand," and was the lowest libertine and simply apuppet ruler.[92] Nader Shah once had a conversation with a holy man about paradise. After what that man described miracles and pleasures of the heaven, the shah asked:
"Are there such things as war and victory over the enemy in paradise?" When the man answered negatively, Nader replied: "How can there be any pleasure then?"[citation needed]
French orientalistLouis Bazin describes the personality of Nader Shah as follows:
Despite his obscure background, he looked born for the throne. Nature endowed him with all the great qualities that make heroes ... His dyed beard made a sharp contrast with his completely gray hair; his natural physique was strong, tall, and his waist was proportional to his growth; his expression was gloomy, with an oblong face, an aquiline nose and a beautiful mouth, but with his lower lip protruding forward. He had small penetrating eyes with a sharp and piercing gaze; his voice was rude and loud, although he knew how to soften it on occasion, as required by personal interest...
He did not have a permanent home – his military camp was his court; his palace was his tent, and his closest confidants were his bravest soldiers ... Undaunted in battle, he brought courage, and was always in the thick of danger among his brave men, as long as the battle lasted ... He did not neglect any of the measures dictated by foresight ... Nevertheless, the repulsive greed and unprecedented cruelties that wore his subjects, ultimately led to his fall, and the extremes and horrors that were caused by him, made Persia cry. He was adored, feared and cursed at the same time.[93]
English travelerJonas Hanway, who lived in the courtyard of Nader Shah, describes him:
Nader Shah is taller than 6 feet, well-built, very physically strong. He has such an unusually loud voice that he can give orders to his people at a distance of about 100 yards. He drinks wine moderately, hours of his rest among ladies are very rare, his food is simple, and if government affairs require his presence, he rejects his meal and satisfies hunger with fried peas (which he always carries in his pocket) and a sip of water... He is extremely generous, especially to his warriors, and generously rewards all who have distinguished themselves in his service. At the same time, he is very severe and strict in relation to discipline, punishing with the death penalty all who have committed major misconduct... He never forgives the guilty, no matter what rank he is. Being on a march or in the field, he confines himself to food, drink and sleep of a simple soldier and forces all his officers to follow the same harsh discipline. He has such a strong physique that he often sleeps on a frosty night on bare ground in the open air, wrapping himself only in his cloak and putting a saddle under his head as a pillow. In private conversations, no one is allowed to talk about government affairs.[94]
He was the horror of the Ottoman Empire, the conqueror of India, the ruler of Persia and all of Asia. His neighbors respected him, his enemies were afraid of him, and he lacked only the love of his subjects.[95][page needed]
OnePunjabi contemporary poet described the rule of Nader as a time "when all of India trembled with horror".[96] TheKashmiri historian Lateef described him as follows: "Nader Shah, the horror of Asia, the pride and savior of his country, the restorer of her freedom and conqueror of India, who, having a simple origin, rose to such greatness that monarchs rarely have from birth".[97]Joseph Stalin used to read about Nader Shah and admired him, calling him, along withIvan the Terrible, a teacher. In Europe, Nader Shah was compared toAlexander the Great. Starting from a young age,Napoleon Bonaparte also used to read about and admire Nader Shah. Napoleon considered himself the new Nader, and he himself was later called European Nader Shah.[98]
Nader was somewhat austere in his daily life. He always preferred plain garments and disdained courtly sophistication and lavish lifestyles, particularly that of theSafavids. He ate simple foods and restrained himself from being tied to his harem and liquor, unlikeSoltan Husayn andTahmasp II.[99]
Nader did not want historians to detail his military victories too closely because he feared others would copy his brilliant techniques on the battlefield.[26][page needed]
^abNader's exact date of birth is unknown but 6 August 1698 is the "likeliest" according to Axworthy, p. 17 (and note) andThe Cambridge History of Iran (vol. 7, p. 3); other biographers favour 1688.
^Elena Andreeva; Louis A. DiMarco; Adam B. Lowther; Paul G. Pierpaoli Jr.; Spencer C. Tucker; Sherifa Zuhur (2017)."Iran". In Tucker, Spencer C. (ed.).Modern Conflict in the Greater Middle East: A Country-by-Country Guide. ABC-CLIO. pp. 83–108.ISBN9781440843617.Under its great ruler and military leader Nader Shah (1736–1747), Persia was arguably the world's most powerful empire
^The Afghan Interlude and the Zand and Afshar Dynasties, Kamran Scot Aghaie,The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, ed. Touraj Daryaee, (Oxford University Press, 2012), 316.
Matthee, Rudi (2018). "Nādir Shāh in Iranian Historiography: Warlord or National Hero?". InSchmidtke, Sabine (ed.).Studying the Near and Middle East at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, 1935–2018. Gorgias Press. pp. 467–474.
Perry, John R. (1979).Karim Khan Zand: A History of Iran, 1747–1779. University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0226660981.
Perry, John R. (1984)."Afsharids".Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. I, online ed., Fasc. 6. New York. pp. 587–589.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Perry, John R. (1997)."Ebrāhīm Shah Afšār".Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. VIII, online edition, Fasc. 1. New York. pp. 75–76.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Tucker, Ernest (2021). Melville, Charles Melville (ed.).The Contest for Rule in Eighteenth-Century Iran: Idea of Iran Vol. 11. I.B. Tauris.ISBN978-0755645992.
Michael Axworthy,Iran: Empire of the Mind: A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day (Paperback)ISBN0-14-103629-X Publisher Penguin (2008)
Rota, Giorgio (2020). "In a League of Its Own? Nāder Šāh and His Empire". In Rollinger, Robert; Degen, Julian; Gehler, Michael (eds.).Short-term Empires in World History. Springer. pp. 215–226.
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