| Nāga | |
|---|---|
_(14319408898)_(cropped).jpg) A nāga couple, featured as aChennakeshava Temple relief | |
| Devanagari | नाग |
| Venerated in | Hinduism,Buddhism |
| Abode | Patala |
| Texts | Mahabharata,Puranas |
In various Asian religious traditions, theNāgas (Sanskrit:नाग,romanized: Nāga)[1] are a divine, or semi-divine, race of half-human, half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld (Patala), and can occasionally take human or part-human form, or are so depicted in art. Furthermore, nāgas are also known asdragons andwater spirits. A female nāga is called aNagini (Hindi: Nagin). According to legend, they are the children of the sageKashyapa andKadru. Rituals devoted to these supernatural beings have been taking place throughout South Asia for at least 2,000 years.[2] They are principally depicted in three forms: as entirely human with snakes on the heads and necks, as common serpents, or as half-human, half-snake beings inHinduism andBuddhism.
Nagaraja is the title given to the king of the nāgas.[3] Narratives of these beings hold cultural significance in the mythological traditions of manySouth Asian andSoutheast Asian cultures, and within Hinduism and Buddhism. Communities such as theNagavamshi,Khmer andSri Lankan Tamils claim descent from this race.
In Sanskrit, anāgá (नाग) is a snake, most often depicted by theIndian cobra (Naja naja). A synonym fornāgá isphaṇin (फणिन्). There are several words for "snake" in general, and one of the very commonly used ones issarpá (सर्प). Sometimes the wordnāgá is also used generically to mean "snake".[4] The word iscognate with English 'snake', Germanic:*snēk-a-,Proto-IE:*(s)nēg-o- (withs-mobile).[5]
Alternatively, an Indo-European etymology as a "hairless, naked animal"—cognate to English "naked"—would explain that the Sanskrit wordnāga can also mean "cloud", "mountain" or "elephant".[6]
Nāgas, as a serpent-shaped group of deities that often take form as cobras, are prominent inHindu iconography, throughout Hindu texts (especially in the first book of theMahābhārata) and in local folk traditions of worship.[7] In some regions of the Himalaya, nāgas are regarded as the divine rulers of the region — for example, inKullu Valley, inBerinag and in the valley of thePindar River, which is believed to be ruled by the ninefoldNaiṇī Devī. Both in theNilamata Purana ofKashmir and in theSwayambhu Purana ofKathmandu, the respective region begins its history as a lake, populated by nāgas, which is later drained.[8]
Ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata, theRamayana, and thePuranas describe the nāgas as a powerful, splendid and proud semi-divine species that can assume their physical form either as human (often with a halo of cobra hoods behind their head), as a partially human serpent, or as a whole serpent. Their domain is in the enchanted underworld, the underground realm filled with gems, gold and other earthly treasures calledNaga-loka orPatala-loka. They are also often associated with bodies of waters—including rivers, lakes, seas, and wells—and are guardians of treasure.[9] Their power and venom make them potentially dangerous to humans. However, inHindu mythology, they often take the role of benevolent protagonists: in theSamudra Manthana,Vasuki, anagaraja who abides onShiva's neck, became the churning rope for churning of theOcean of Milk.[10] Their eternal archrival is theGaruḍa, the legendary semi-divine bird-like deity.[11]
Vishnu is originally portrayed in the form sheltered bySheshanāga or reclining on Shesha, but the iconography has been extended to other deities as well. The serpent is a common feature inGanesha iconography, and appears in many forms: around the neck,[12] use as asacred thread (Sanskrit:yajñopavīta)[13] wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne.[14] Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[15] Maehle (2006: p. 297) states that "Patanjali is thought to be a manifestation of the serpent of eternity".
In South India, termite hills are believed to be the dwelling place of female nagammas,[16][17][18] whereas Himalayan Nags and Naginis, such asNaiṇī Devī ofPindar Valley, are worshipped as underworld beings protecting water resources and the wellbeing of village and valley.[19][20]
TheMahabharata epic is the first text that introduces nāgas; it describes them in detail and narrates their stories.[21] The cosmic snakeShesha, thenagarajas (nāga kings)Vasuki,Takshaka, Airavata andKarkotaka, and the princessUlupi, are all depicted in the Mahabharata.
TheBrahma Purana describes the reign of Adishesha as the king of the serpents in Patala:[22]
During the night the light of the moon is not utilised for its coolness but only for illumination.
Since that passes away is not taken notice of by the nāgas who enjoy with gaiety the foodstuffs and the edibles they consume and the great beverages they drink. Nor are Danujas and others aware of it.
O brahmins, the forests, rivers, lakes, and lotus ponds, the cooing of the cuckoo and other sweet birds, the pleasing skies, the unguents and the continuous notes and sounds of musical instruments such as the lute, flute and Mṛdaṅga drums, O brahmins—all these and other beautiful things are enjoyed by virtue of their good luck by Dānavas, Daityas and Nāgas residing in Pātāla. The Tāmasī form of Viṣṇu, named Śeṣa is beneath the lower regions.
Daityas and Dānavas are not capable of recounting his good qualities. He is honoured by Devas and celestial sages. He is spoken of as Ananta. He has a thousand hoods and he is clearly bedecked in Svastika ornaments devoid of impurities. He illuminates all quarters by thousand jewels on his hoods.
— Brahma Purana, Chapter 19
TheKamba Ramayana describes the role of Vasuki in theSamudra Manthana:[23]
The devas and the asuras decided to get Amṛta (Ambrosia—the celestial honey of immortalily) by churning the sea of milk. The Devas went to bring Mandara-mountain, to be used as the churning rod. Their attempt was futile. The asuras made a trial with the same result. The Bhūtagaṇas (Guards) of Śiva also made a vain attempt. On the instruction of Viṣṇu, Garuḍa went and brought the mountain as easily as an eagle takes away a frog. Now Vāsuki should be brought. The Devas and Gandharvas failed in that attempt also. Garuḍa who was haughty of his strength and speed, went to the city of the nāgas (serpents) and requested Vāsuki to come to the sea of Milk. Vāsuki replied that if the matter was so urgent he had no objection for being carried to that place. He took the middle part of Vāsuki in his beak and flew up higher and higher and reached beyond the horizon. Still the lower half of Vāsuki was lying on the ground. So he took Vāsuki in his beak as folded in two. Still the result was the same. Garuḍa became aware of the impossibility of carrying Vāsuki and returned, ashamed and disappointed. Viṣṇu rebuked him for his arrogance. After this, Śiva stretched his hand to Pātāla. Vāsuki became a small bangle on that hand. Thus Vāsuki was brought to the shore of the sea of Milk.
TheDevi Bhagavata Purana describes the legend of Manasa:[24]
Manasā is the mind-born daughter of Maharṣi Kaśyapa; hence she is named Manasā; or it may be She who plays with the mind is Manasā. Or it may be She who meditates on God with her mind and gets rapture in Her meditation of God is named Manasā. She finds pleasure in Her Own Self, the great devotee of Viṣṇu, a Siddha Yoginī. For three Yugas She worshipped Śrī Kṛṣṇa and then She became a Siddha Yoginī. Śrī Kṛṣṇa, the Lord of the Gopīs, seeing the body of Manasā lean and thin due to austerities, or seeing her worn out like the Muni Jarat Kāru called her by the name of Jarat Kāru. Hence Her name has come also to be Jarat Kāru. Kṛṣṇa, the Ocean of Mercy, gave her out of kindness, Her desired boon; She worshipped Him and Śrī Kṛṣṇa also worshipped Her. Devī Manasā is known in the Heavens, in the abode of the Nāgas (serpents), in earth, in Brahmāloka, in all the worlds as of very fair colour, beautiful and charming. She is named Jagad Gaurī as she is of a very fair colour in the world. Her other name is Śaivī and she is the disciple of Śiva. She is named Vaiṣṇavī as she is greatly devoted to Viṣṇu. She saved the Nāgas in the Snake Sacrifice performed by Pariksit, she is named Nageśvarī and Nāga Bhaginī and She is capable to destroy the effects of poison. She is called Viṣahari. She got the Siddha yoga from Mahādeva; hence She is named Siddha Yoginī
— Devi Bhagavata Purana, Chapter 47
As in Hinduism, the Buddhist nāga generally has sometimes been portrayed as a human being with a snake or dragon extending over his head.[25] One nāga, in human form, attempted to become a monk, and when telling it that such ordination was impossible, the Buddha told it how to ensure that it would be reborn a human, and so able to become a monk.[26]
The nāgas are believed to both live onNagaloka, among the other minor deities and in various parts of the human-inhabited earth. Some of them are water-dwellers, living in streams or the ocean; others are earth-dwellers, living in caverns.
The nāgas are the followers ofVirūpākṣa (Pāli: Virūpakkha), one of theFour Heavenly Kings who guards the western direction. They act as guards upon Mount Sumeru, protecting thedēvas ofTrāyastriṃśa from attacks by theasuras.
Among the notable nāgas of Buddhist tradition isMucalinda,nagaraja and protector of the Buddha. In the Vinaya Sutra (I, 3), shortly after his enlightenment, the Buddha is meditating in a forest when a great storm arises, but graciously, King Mucalinda gives shelter to the Buddha from the storm by covering the Buddha's head with his seven snake heads.[27] Then the king takes the form of a youngBrahmin and renders the Buddha homage.[27]
In theVajrayāna andMahāsiddha traditions,[28] nāgas in their half-human form are depicted holding a nāgas-jewel,kumbhas ofamrita, or aterma that had been elementally encoded by adepts. InTibetan Buddhism, nāgas are known asklu orklu-mo and they are associated with water and cleanliness, as they live in oceans, rivers, lakes, and springs, and do not want their environments to be disturbed or polluted.[29]
The two chief disciples of the Buddha,Sariputta andMoggallāna are both referred to asMahānāga or "Great nāga".[30] Some of the most important figures in Buddhist history symbolize nāgas in their names such asDignāga,Nāgāsēna, and, although other etymons are assigned to his name,Nāgārjuna.
TheNāga Saṃyutta of thePali Canon consists ofsuttas specifically devoted to explaining nature of the nāgas.
In the "Devadatta" chapter of theLotus Sutra, the daughter of the dragon king, an eight year oldlongnü (龍女,nāgakanyā), after listening toMañjuśrī preach the Lotus Sutra, transforms into a male Bodhisattva and immediately reaches full enlightenment.[31][32][33] Some say this tale appears to reinforce the viewpoint prevalent in Mahayana scriptures that a male body is required for Buddhahood, even if a being is so advanced in realization that they can magically transform their body at will and demonstrate the emptiness of the physical form itself.[34] However, many schools of Buddhism and classical, seminal Chinese exegeses interpret the story to repudiate this viewpoint, stating the story demonstrates that women can attain Buddhahood in their current form.[31]
According to tradition, the Prajñapāramita sutras had been given by the Buddha to a great nāga who guarded them in the sea, and were conferred upon Nāgārjuna later.[35][36]
InTibetan Buddhist literature, nāgas are portrayed as guardians or owners of submerged treasure, which can be mere wealth or supernatural, "spiritual" treasures.[29]
InThailand andJava, the nāga is a wealthyunderworld deity. ForMalay sailors, nāgas are a type of dragon with many heads. InLaos they are beaked water serpents.[citation needed] InTibet, they are said to be found in waterways and underground locations, and are susceptible to the suffering caused by human carelessness towards the natural environment.
TheNaga people were believed to be an ancienttribe and origins ofSri Lanka.[37][38][note 1] According toV. Kanakasabhai, the Oliyar,Parathavar,Maravar, and Eyinar, who were widespread acrossSouth India andNorth-East Sri Lanka, are all Naga tribes.[41] There are references to them in several ancient texts such asMahavamsa,Manimekalai, and also in otherSanskrit andPali literature. They are generally represented as a class of superhumans taking the form of serpents who inhabit a subterranean world. Texts such as Manimekalai represent them as persons in human form.[42][note 2]
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Stories of nāgas (Khmer:នាគ,néak) have been part ofKhmer society for thousands of years, dating back to theFunan era (នគរភ្នំ). According to reports from two Chinese envoys,Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, the state ofFunan was established in the 1st century CE when an Indian prince namedKaundinya I (កៅណ្ឌិន្យទី១) married a nāga princess namedSoma (សោមាកូនព្រះចន្ទsaôma kon preah chan; "Soma, daughter of the moon god"; Chinese: 柳葉, 柳叶Liuye; "Willow Leaf"). The couple is symbolized in the story ofPreah Thong and Neang Neak.As the legend goes, Kaundinya received instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat Soma, the nāga princess and daughter of the nāga king. During the ensuing battle, they fell in love and later married, establishing the royal lineage of the Funan dynasty. Kaundinya subsequently constructed the capital city ofVyadhapura, and the kingdom became known asKambujadeśa orCambodia (កម្ពុជា,Kampuchea).[43][44][45]The love story between Kaundinya and Soma is the foundation for many standard practices in modern-day Khmer culture, including wedding ceremonies and other rituals.[46][47]The Khmer people regard themselves as descendants of the nāgas and many still believe the nāga exist today, destined to one day return and restore prosperity to their people.[citation needed]
Although wars, nature, and the passage of time destroyed many temples from the Funan era, nāgas can still be seen in ancient temples dating to theChenla andAngkor eras. For instance, the temple now called "The Coiled Nāgas Temple" (ប្រាសាទនាគព័ន្ធ,PrasatNeak Poan) was previously named, "Emperor's Wealth Temple" (ប្រាសាទរាជ្យស្រីPrasat Reach Srey).[48]
In Khmer culture, nāgas symbolize rain, and represent a bridge between the mortal realm (ឋានមនុស្ស) and the realm ofdevas (Heaven;ឋានទេវតា/ឋានសួគ៌). They have the ability to transform into half or fully human and act as protectors against invisible forces, deities, or malicious intentions. Furthermore,Cambodian nāgas possess numerological symbolism based on the number of their heads. Odd-headed nāgas embody masculinity, infinity, timelessness, and immortality, since all odd numbers derives from the number one (១). Even-headed nāgas denote femininity, physicality, mortality, temporality, and theEarth. Odd headed nāgas are believed to represent immortality and are carved and used throughout Cambodia.[49][50]
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In Indian origin religions, there are four different nāga races:
All of them have great powers and can set off storms, rain, tempest and create lands from the sea.
InJavanese,Sundanese, andBalinese culture,Indonesia, a nāga is depicted as a crowned, giant, magical serpent, sometimes winged. It is similarly derived from theShiva-Hinduism tradition, merged with Javaneseanimism. The nāga in Indonesia mainly derived and influenced by Indic tradition, combined with the native animism tradition of sacred serpents. In Sanskrit, the termnāga literally means snake, but in Java it normally refer to serpent deity, associated with water and fertility. InBorobudur, the nāgas are depicted in their human form, but elsewhere they are depicted in animal shape.[51]
Early depictions of circa-9th-century Central Java closely resembled Indic nāga which was based on imagery ofcobras. During this period, nāga-serpents were depicted as giant cobras supporting the waterspout ofyoni-lingam. The examples of nāga-sculpture can be found in several Javanesecandis, includingPrambanan,Sambisari,Ijo, andJawi. In East Java, thePenataran temple complex contain aCandi Nāga, an unusual nāga-temple with its Hindu-Javanesecaryatids holding corpulent nāgas aloft.[52]
The later depiction since the 15th century, however, was slightly influenced by Chinese dragon imagery—although unlike its Chinese counterparts, Javanese and Balinese nāgas do not have legs. Nāga as the lesser deity of earth and water is prevalent in theHindu period of Indonesia, before the introduction of Islam.
InBalinese tradition, nāgas are often depicted battlinggaruḍas. Intricately carved nāgas are found as stairs railings in bridges or stairs, such as those found inBalinese temples,Ubud monkey forest, andTaman Sari in Yogyakarta.
In awayang theater story, a snake-like god (nāga) named Sanghyang Anantaboga orAntaboga is a guardian deity in the bowels of the earth.[53][54] nāgas symbolize the nether realm of earth or underworld.
The Nāga (Lao:ພະຍານາກ) is believed to live in theLaotian stretch of theMekong or its estuaries. Lao mythology maintains that the nāgas are the protectors ofVientiane, and by extension, the Lao state. The association with nāgas was most clearly articulated during and immediately after the reign ofAnouvong. An important poem from this periodSan Leupphasun (Lao:ສານລຶພສູນ) discusses relations between Laos and Thailand in a veiled manner, using the Nāga and theGaruḍa to represent the Lao and the Thai, respectively.[55] The Nāga is incorporated extensively into Lao iconography, and features prominently in Lao culture throughout the length of the country, not only in Vientiane.
Phaya Nak orPhaya Nāga (Thai:พญานาค;RTGS: phaya nak;lit. 'lord of Nāga',phaya derived fromMon which meanhigh nobility) or Nakkharat (Thai:นาคราช;lit. 'king of Nāga') in Thai beliefs, nāgas are considered the patrons of water. Nāgas are believed to live in either water bodies or in caves. According to a popular legend, theMekong River innorth-eastern Thailand andLaos was said to be created by twoNāga kings slithering through the area, thus creating the Mekong and the nearbyNan River. The Mekong is synonymous with theunexplained fireballs phenomenon which has long been believed to be created by the nāgas that dwell in the river.[56][57] Common explanations of their sightings have been attributed tooarfish, elongated fish with red crests; however, these are exclusively marine and usually live at great depths.[58]
In November 2022, the Thai government declared the nāga as thenational symbol of Thailand, with the aim of promoting Thai culture and traditions and increasing the country's cultural capital to drive the creative economy. The nāga is a mythical creature with long-standing beliefs and connections to the Thai people, and its designation as a national symbol is a significant step towards preserving and promoting Thai culture. The National Culture Commission and theFine Arts Department developed a prototype image of the nāga that accurately represents Thai beliefs and traditions related to the creature. The prototype image features the four families of nāgas, each with its unique color, and the largest nāga, Nak Vasuki (Thai:นาควาสุกรี), who is related to Buddhism and the Thai monarchy, The nāga is also believed to be a symbol of water and fertility and serves as a guardian of Buddhism.[59][60][61]
Due to the strong relation with everything water, the Nāga in Thai belief also plays a role in rain control. The concept ofNak hai nam (Thai:นาคให้น้ำ; lit. Nāga granting water) is used for annual rainfall prediction. It is still practiced nowadays, most notably during theRoyal Ploughing Ceremony. The oracle ranges from1 nak hai nam (1 Nāga granted water); meaning that abundant rainfall should be observed that year, to maximum7 nak hai nam (7 nagas granted water); meaning there might not be adequate rainfall that year.[62]
In northern Thailand, theSinghanavati Kingdom had a strong connection with nāgas. The kingdom was believed to be built with aids of nāgas, and thus, nāgas were highly revered by the royal family. The kingdom, for a period of time, was renamedYonok Nāga Rāj (lit.Yonok thenagaraja)[63]
The nāgas are also highly revered. TheBuddhist temples and palaces are often adorned with various nāgas. The termNāga is also present in variousThai architecture terms including thenak sadung (นาคสะดุ้ง, the outer roof finial component featuring Nāga-like structure), and thenak than (นาคทันต์, thecorbel with Nāga-shape).[64] Moreover, nāgas are sometimes linked to medicine. The nāgaVasuki is present in the legend of theSamudra Manthana, in whichDhanvantari (god ofAyurveda) andamrita (the elixir of eternal life) were churned from theOcean of Milk. The nāgas can also be founded substituting thesnakes in eitherRod of Asclepius or mistakenlyCaduceus of several medical institutions' symbols. The former seal ofFaculty of Medicine, Srinakharinwirot University, and the seal of Society of Medical Student Thailand are some notable examples using the Caduceus with nagas' presence instead of snakes.[65]
Thai folklore holds the Phaya nāgas to be demi-god creatures, which possess supernatural powers as has been described inBuddhist andHindu cosmology.[66] The "Kamchanod Forest" (ป่าคำชะโนด;RTGS: Pa Khamchanot)Ban Dung district,Udon Thani province, which is held in high reverence and fear across Thailand, is believed to be thecrossroads between the human world and the netherworld, and is frequently depicted in Thai folklore as the site of many hauntings, but more frequently is considered to be the home of the nāga.[67]
According toShan folklore ofNánzhào Kingdom (now southern China and Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries, which was centered on present-dayYúnnán in China), the nāga inhabited theĚrhǎi lake and is the creator of theMekong.[66] InChina, the nāga (Chinese:那伽) is generally more considered to be a dragon.
Many people, particularly inIsan (the north-eastern region of Thailand), believe that the nāgas are responsible for unnatural wave phenomena occurring in the rivers or lakes in the vicinity. It is also frequently claimed that the serpent-like demigods are responsible for marks on common objects, such ascar hoods or house walls.[57]
A police officer has also claimed to be in contact with the nāga, although the implications of this contact is not thoroughly explained.[68]
In attempts to explain these phenomena, scientists and researchers at the Faculty of Science of Chulalongkorn University have attributed these seemingly preternatural phenomena tostanding waves in water, and posit that the existence of the Phaya Nāga is similar to belief inLoch Ness Monster in Scotland orOgopogo in Canada, and further maintain that the serpent-like tracks of the Phaya Nāga are very possibly forged by humans.[69]
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In Malay and Orang Asli traditions, the lake Chini, located inPahang is home to a nāga calledSri Gumum. Depending on legend versions, her predecessor Sri Pahang or her son left the lake and later fought a nāga called Sri Kemboja. Kemboja is the Malay name for Cambodia. Like the nāga-legends there, there are stories about an ancient empire in lake Chini, although the stories are not linked to the nāga-legends.[70][71]
The indigenousBakunawa, a serpent-like moon-eating creature inPhilippine mythology, wassyncretized with the nāga. It is believed to be the cause ofeclipses,earthquakes, rains, and wind.[72] The movements of thebakunawa served as ageomanticcalendar system for ancient Filipinos and were part of theshamanistic rituals of thebabaylan. It is usually depicted with a characteristically looped tail and was variously believed to inhabit either the sea, the sky, or theunderworld.[73]However, the bakunawa may have also syncretized with the Hindu deities,Rahu andKetu, thenavagraha ofeclipses.[74]
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