As the president of the newly formedTurkish Republic, Atatürk initiated political, economic, and cultural reforms to build a republican and secular nation-state. He made primary education free and compulsory, opening thousands of new schools all over the country. He also introduced the Latin-basedTurkish alphabet. Turkish women receivedequal civil and political rights during his presidency. His government carried out a policy ofTurkification, trying to create a homogeneous, unified and above allsecular nation under the Turkish banner. TheTurkish Parliament granted him the surname Atatürk in 1934, which means "Father of the Turks", in recognition of the role he played in building the modern Turkish Republic. He died on 10 November 1938 atDolmabahçe Palace inIstanbul, at the age of 57; he was succeeded as president by his long-time prime ministerİsmet İnönü.
In 1981, the centennial of Atatürk's birth, his memory was honoured by theUnited Nations andUNESCO, which declared itThe Atatürk Year in the World and adopted theResolution on the Atatürk Centennial, describing him as "the leader of the first struggle given againstcolonialism andimperialism".[3][4] Atatürk attempted rapprochement with the close countries such as Iran, Yugoslavia, Iraq, and Greece, as well as the creation of theBalkan Pact that resisted the expansionist aggressions ofFascist Italy andTsarist Bulgaria during theinterwar period of the 1930s. Despite the positive memories and contributions, he was criticized for a number of atrocities committed under his government and was described as a dictator by his detractors.
Name
Atatürk was bornMustafa. His second nameKemal (meaning 'perfection' or 'maturity' inArabic) was given to him by his mathematics teacher, Captain Üsküplü Mustafa Efendi. According toAfet İnan, his teacher gave this name "in admiration of [Atatürk's] capability and maturity".[5][6] According to other sources, his teacher wanted to distinguish Atatürk from another student who was also named Mustafa.[7][8]Andrew Mango suggests that he may have chosen the name himself as a tribute to the nationalist poetNamık Kemal.[9] According to Alkan, Atatürk seems to have embraced the name Kemal during his army years.[10]
After receiving thesurname Atatürk on his first ID card in 1934, his name appeared as Kemal Atatürk, while thegiven name Mustafa had disappeared altogether. In February 1935, Atatürk began to use theOld Turkic[11] name Kamâl. According toTarama Dergisi (1934),kamal meant 'fortification', 'fortress', 'army', or 'shield'.[12] On 4 February 1935, the government's official news agencyAnadolu Agency gave the following explanation:[13]
According to our intelligence, the name 'Kamâl' that Atatürk bears is not an Arabic word, nor does it have the meaning by the Arabic word kemal ['maturity', 'perfection']. Atatürk's given name, which is being retained, is 'Kamâl', the Turkish meaning of which is army and fortress. As the circumflex accent on the final 'â' softens the 'l' the pronunciation closely approximates that of the Arabic 'Kemal'.
— Anadolu Agency
However, Atatürk returned to the old spelling of Kemal from May 1937 and onwards. To make a soft transition, he avoided using the name as much as he could, either by not using it at all or by signing documents as 'K. Atatürk'. An official explanation was never given, but it is widely agreed that the issue with Atatürk's name was linked to theTurkish language reform.[10]
Mustafa Kemal was born either in the Ahmet Subaşı neighbourhood or at a house (preserved as a museum) in Islahhane Street (now Apostolou Pavlou Street) in the Koca Kasım Pasha neighbourhood inSalonica (Selanik),[14]Ottoman Empire. His parents wereAli Rıza Efendi, a military officer originally fromKodžadžik (Kocacık), title deed clerk and lumber trader, andZübeyde Hanım. Only one of Mustafa's siblings, a sister namedMakbule (Atadan) survived childhood; she died in 1956.[15] According to information obtained from Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,Makbule Atadan, other family members, and childhood friends who knew Atatürk's family, Ali Rıza Efendi was originally from Salonica, and his wife, Zübeyde Hanım, was born to a farming family inLangaza, west of Salonica, in 1857.[16]
In his early years, his mother encouraged Mustafa Kemal to attend a religious school, something he did reluctantly and only briefly. Later, he attended the Şemsi Efendi School (a private school with a more secular curriculum) at the direction of his father. When he was seven years old, his father died.[35] His mother wanted him to learn a trade, but without consulting them, Mustafa Kemal took the entrance exam for the Salonica Military School (Selanik Askeri Rüştiyesi) in 1893. In 1896, he enrolled in theMonastir Military High School (in modernBitola,North Macedonia) where he excelled at mathematics.[36] On 14 March 1899,[37] he enrolled at theOttoman Military Academy in the neighbourhood of Pangaltı[38] within theŞişli district of the Ottoman capital cityConstantinople (modernIstanbul) and graduated in 1902. He later graduated from theOttoman Military College in Constantinople on 11 January 1905.[37]
Mustafa Kemal on the day of graduation from the War Academy in 1905
Shortly after graduation, he was arrested by the police for his anti-monarchist activities. Following confinement for several months he was released only with the support of Rıza Pasha, his former school director.[39] After his release, Mustafa Kemal was assigned to theFifth Army based inDamascus as aStaffCaptain[37] in the company ofAli Fuat (Cebesoy) andLütfi Müfit (Özdeş).[40] He joined a small secret revolutionary society of reformist officers led by a merchantMustafa Elvan (Cantekin) calledVatan ve Hürriyet ('Motherland and Liberty'). On 20 June 1907, he was promoted to the rank ofSenior Captain (Kolağası) and on 13 October 1907, was assigned to the headquarters of theThird Army inManastır.[41] He joined theCommittee of Union and Progress, with membership number 322, although in later years he became known for his opposition to, and frequent criticism of, the policies pursued by the CUP leadership. On 22 June 1908, he was appointed the Inspector of the Ottoman Railways inEastern Rumelia (Doğu Rumeli Bölgesi Demiryolları Müfettişi), though this did not translate into a major role in theYoung Turk Revolution of 1908.[41]
Mustafa Kemal (front row, second from left) with the Ottoman Turkish observers at thePicardie army manoeuvres in France, 28 September 1910
He proposed depoliticization in the army, a proposal which was disliked by the leaders of the CUP. As a result, he was sent away toTripolitania Vilayet (presentLibya, then an Ottoman territory) under the pretext of suppressing a tribal rebellion towards the end of 1908.[39] According to Mikush however, he volunteered for this mission.[42] He suppressed the revolt and returned to Constantinople in January 1909.
In April 1909 in Constantinople, a group of soldiers began a counter-revolution (see31 March Incident). Mustafa Kemal was instrumental in suppressing the revolt, and deposing SultanAbdul Hamid II.[43]
Later, in the autumn of 1910, he was among the Ottoman military observers who attended thePicardie army manoeuvres in France,[50] and in 1911, served at theMinistry of War (Harbiye Nezareti) in Constantinople for a short time.
Mustafa Kemal (left) with an Ottoman military officer and Bedouin forces inDerna,Tripolitania Vilayet, 1912
In 1911, he volunteered to fight in theItalo-Turkish War[51] in the OttomanTripolitania Vilayet (present-dayLibya).[52] He served mainly in the areas nearDerna andTobruk.[51] The invading Italian army had a strength of 150,000 men;[53] it was opposed by 20,000 Bedouins and 8,000 Turks.[54] A short time beforeItaly declared war, many of the Ottoman troops in Libya were sent to the Ottoman province ofYemen Vilayet to put down the rebellion there, so the Ottoman government was caught with inadequate resources to counter the Italians in Libya. Britain, which controlled theOttoman provinces of Egypt and Sudan, did not allow additional Ottoman troops to reach Libya through Egypt. Ottoman soldiers like Mustafa Kemal went to Libya either dressed as Arabs (risking imprisonment if noticed by the British authorities in Egypt) or by the very few available ferries (the Italians, who had superior naval forces, effectively controlled the sea routes toTripoli). However, despite all the hardships, Mustafa Kemal's forces in Libya managed to repel the Italians on a number of occasions, such as at theBattle of Tobruk on 22 December 1911.
During theBattle of Derna on 16–17 January 1912, while Mustafa Kemal was assaulting the Italian-controlled fortress of Kasr-ı Harun, two Italian planes dropped bombs on the Ottoman forces; alimestone splinter from a damaged building's rubble struck Mustafa Kemal's left eye, causing permanent tissue damage, but not total loss of sight. He received medical treatment for nearly a month; he attempted to leave theRed Crescent's health facilities after only two weeks, but when his eye's situation worsened, he had to return and resume treatment. On 6 March 1912, Mustafa Kemal became the Commander of the Ottoman forces in Derna. He managed to defend and retain the city and its surrounding region until the end of the Italo-Turkish War on 18 October 1912. Mustafa Kemal,Enver Bey,Fethi Bey, and the other Ottoman military commanders in Libya had to return toOttoman Europe following the outbreak of theBalkan Wars on 8 October 1912. Having lost the war, the Ottoman government had to surrenderTripolitania,Fezzan, andCyrenaica (three provinces forming present-day Libya) to theKingdom of Italy in theTreaty of Lausanne (1912) signed ten days later, on 18 October 1912. Since 1923, historians have preferred to name this treaty as the "Treaty of Ouchy", after theChâteau d'Ouchy inLausanne where it was signed, to distinguish it from the laterTreaty of Lausanne (1923) signed between theAllies of World War I and theGrand National Assembly of Turkey inAnkara.[55]
In June 1913, during theSecond Balkan War, he took part in the Ottoman Army forces[58] commanded byKaymakamEnver Bey that recoveredDimetoka andEdirne (Adrianople, the capital city of theOttoman Empire between 1365 and 1453, thus of utmost historic importance for the Turks) together with most of easternThrace from the Bulgarians.
In 1913, he was appointed the Ottoman military attaché to all Balkan states (his office was inSofia, Bulgaria) and promoted to the rank ofKaymakam (Lieutenant Colonel /Colonel) on 1 March 1914.[37] While in Bulgaria, he met with Dimitrina Kovacheva, the daughter of Bulgarian generalStiliyan Kovachev (against whose forces he had fought during theBalkan Wars), who had recently completed her education inSwitzerland, during aNew Year's Eve ball in Sofia and fell in love with her.[59] The two danced at the ball and started to secretly date in the following days.[59] Mustafa Kemal twice asked Dimitrina's parents for their permission to marry her (the second time was in 1915, duringWorld War I) and was twice refused, which left him with a lifelong sadness.[59]
In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered theEuropean andMiddle Eastern theatres of World War I allied with theCentral Powers. Mustafa Kemal was given the task of organizing and commanding the 19th Division attached to theFifth Army during theBattle of Gallipoli. He became the front-line commander after correctly anticipating where the Allies would attack, and held his position until they retreated. Following the Battle of Gallipoli, Mustafa Kemal served inEdirne until 14 January 1916. He was then assigned to the command of theXVI Corps of theSecond Army and sent to theCaucasus Campaign after the massive Russian offensive had reached key Anatolian cities. On 7 August, he rallied his troops and mounted a counteroffensive.[60] Two of his divisions capturedBitlis andMuş, upsetting the calculations of the Russian Command.[61]
Mustafa Kemal with Ottoman military officers during theBattle of Gallipoli, Çanakkale, 1915
Following this victory, theCUP government in Constantinople proposed to establish a new army inHejaz known as the Hejaz Expeditionary Force (Hicaz Kuvve-i Seferiyesi) and appoint Mustafa Kemal to its command, but he refused the proposal and this army was never established.[50] Instead, on 7 March 1917, Mustafa Kemal was promoted from the command of the XVI Corps to the overall command of the Second Army, although theCzar's armies were soon withdrawn when theRussian Revolution erupted.[50][60]
In July 1917, he was appointed to the command of theSeventh Army, replacingFevzi Pasha on 7 August 1917, who was under the command of the German generalErich von Falkenhayn'sYildirim Army Group (after the British forces of GeneralEdmund Allenby capturedJerusalem in December 1917, Erich von Falkenhayn was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanders who became the new commander of the Yıldırım Army Group in early 1918.)[50] Mustafa Kemal did not get along well with General von Falkenhayn and, together withMiralay İsmet Bey, wrote a report toGrand VizierTalaat Pasha regarding the grim situation and lack of adequate resources in the Palestinian front. However, Talaat Pasha ignored their observations and refused their suggestion to form a stronger defensive line to the north, inOttoman Syria (in parts of theBeirut Vilayet,Damascus Vilayet, andAleppo Vilayet), with Turks instead of Germans in command.[50] Following the rejection of his report, Mustafa Kemal resigned from the Seventh Army and returned to Constantinople.[50] There, he was assigned with the task of accompanying the crown prince (and future sultan)Mehmed Vahideddin during his train trip toAustria-Hungary and Germany.[50] While in Germany, Mustafa Kemal visited the German lines on theWestern Front and concluded that theCentral Powers would soon lose the war.[50] He did not hesitate to openly express this opinion to KaiserWilhelm II and his high-ranking generals in person.[50] During the return trip, he briefly stayed inKarlsbad andVienna for medical treatment between 30 May and 28 July 1918.[50]
Mustafa Kemal in 1918, the Commander of the Yıldırım Army Group and anHonoraryaide-de-camp of the Sultan
WhenMehmed VI became the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in July 1918, he called Mustafa Kemal to Constantinople, and after several meetings in the months July and August 1918, reassigned him to the command of the Seventh Army in Palestine.[62] Mustafa Kemal arrived inAleppo on 26 August 1918, then continued south to his headquarters inNablus. The Seventh Army was holding the central sector of the front lines. On 19 September, at the beginning of theBattle of Megiddo, the Eighth Army was holding the coastal flank but fell apart andLiman Pasha ordered the Seventh Army to withdraw to the north in order to prevent the British from conducting a short envelopment to theJordan River. The Seventh Army retired towards the Jordan River but wasdestroyed by British aerial bombardment during its retreat from Nablus on 21 September 1918.[63] Nevertheless, Mustafa Kemal managed to form a defence line to the north ofAleppo. According toLord Kinross, Mustafa Kemal was the only Turkish general in the war who never suffered a defeat.[64]
The war ended with theArmistice of Mudros which was signed on 30 October 1918, and all German and Austro-Hungarian troops in the Ottoman Empire were granted ample time to withdraw. On 31 October, Mustafa Kemal was appointed to the command of the Yıldırım Army Group, replacing Liman von Sanders. Mustafa Kemal organized the distribution of weapons to the civilians inAntep in case of a defensive conflict against the invading Allies.[50]
Mustafa Kemal's last active service in the Ottoman Army was organizing the return of the Ottoman troops left behind to the south of the defensive line. In early November 1918, the Yıldırım Army Group was officially dissolved, and Mustafa Kemal returned to anoccupied Constantinople, the Ottoman capital, on 13 November 1918.[50] For a period of time, he worked at the headquarters of the Ministry of War (Harbiye Nezareti) in Constantinople and continued his activities in this city until 16 May 1919.[50] Along the established lines of thepartitioning of the Ottoman Empire, theAllies (British, Italian, French and Greek forces) occupiedAnatolia. The occupation of Constantinople, followed by theoccupation of İzmir (the two largest Ottoman cities at the time) sparked the establishment of theTurkish National Movement and the Turkish War of Independence.[65]
Ottoman genocides (1913–1922) and Mustafa Kemal
Mustafa Kemal was not directly involved in theArmenian genocide (during which around 1 million Armenians were killed by the CUP government, largely via direct killings and deportation to areas where survival of such large numbers of people was impossible) while it was occurring. Since then, the degree to which he was critical or supportive of the genocide has been debated.[66] In speeches for domestic audiences, Mustafa Kemal presented Turks as innocent of any wrongdoing and as victims of horrific Armenian atrocities.[67][68][69] According to some accounts, he expressed disapproval of the events to foreign audiences.[70][page needed] In the postwar period, the Turkish nationalists relied on the support of perpetrators of the genocide and those who had profited from it,[71][72] the return of Armenian survivors was seen as a mortal threat to nationalist ambitions and was therefore made impossible. Mustafa Kemal's followers were responsible for expelling or murdering many Christians from Anatolia.[73][74][75] Turkish generals were ordered "to eliminate Armenia physically and politically".[76][77] Nearly 100,000 Armenians were massacred inTranscaucasia by the Turkish army and another 100,000 fled fromCilicia during theFrench withdrawal.[77] After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey, CUP war criminals were granted immunity[78] and later that year, theTreaty of Lausanne established Turkey's current borders and provided for theGreek population's expulsion. Its protection provisions for non-Muslim minorities had no enforcement mechanism and were disregarded in practice.[79][80] Armenians who managed to avoid deportation and who lived outside the capital city continued to face forced Islamization and kidnapping of girls after 1923,[81][82] while expulsions to Syria continued until 1929.[83]
By December 1918, the leaders of the underground CUP resistance organizationKarakol had approached Mustafa Kemal to lead an anti-Entente resistance movement. HistorianErik-Jan Zürcher argued that Kemal was particularly qualified as he was "trusted as a Unionist and a patriot but not too closely involved either with the ruling clique of Enver and Talaat or the Armenian massacres".[84]
On 30 April 1919,Fahri Yaver-i Hazret-i Şehriyari ('Honorary Aide-de-camp to His Majesty Sultan') with the rank ofMirliva, Mustafa Kemal was assigned as the inspector of theNinth Army Troops Inspectorate to reorganize what remained of the Ottoman military units and to improve internal security. This assignment effectively made him a plenipotentiary of Anatolia, giving him responsibility of all civil and military personel in the area.[85] On 19 May 1919, he reachedSamsun. His first goal was the establishment of an organizednational movement against the occupying forces. In June 1919, he issued theAmasya Circular, declaring the independence of the country was in danger. He resigned from the Ottoman Army on 8 July, and the Ottoman government issued a warrant for his arrest. ButKâzım Karabekir and other military commanders active in Eastern Anatolia followed Mustafa Kemal's lead and acknowledged him as their leader.[86]
On 4 September 1919, he assembled acongress inSivas. Those who opposed the Allies in various provinces in Turkey issued a declaration namedMisak-ı Millî ('National Pact'). Mustafa Kemal was appointed as the head of theexecutive committee of the Congress,[87] which gave him the legitimacy he needed for his future politics.[88][87] Upon its conclusion a wave of governors and commanders pledged their loyalty to his Committee of Representation, those which didn't conform were overthrown by nationalist agents. The government in Istanbul pledged itself to a nationalist agenda with theAmasya Protocol.
Thelast election to theOttoman parliament held in December 1919 gave a sweeping majority to candidates of the "Association for Defence of Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia" (Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti), headed by Mustafa Kemal, who himself remained in Angora, now known asAnkara. The fourth (and last) term of the parliament opened in Constantinople on 12 January 1920. It was dissolved by British forces on 18 March 1920, shortly after it adopted theMisak-ı Millî ('National Pact'). This coincided with a generaloccupation of the city by the Allied forces. Mustafa Kemal called for a national election to establish a new Turkish Parliament seated in Angora.[89] – the "Grand National Assembly" (GNA). On 23 April 1920, the GNA opened with Mustafa Kemal asthe speaker; this act effectively created the situation ofdiarchy in the country.[90] In May 1920, the power struggle between the two governments led to a death sentence in absentia for Mustafa Kemal by theTurkish courts-martial.[91]Halide Edib (Adıvar) andAli Fuat (Cebesoy) were also sentenced to death alongside Mustafa Kemal.[92]
On 10 August 1920, the OttomanGrand VizierDamat Ferid Pasha signed theTreaty of Sèvres, finalizing plans for thepartitioning of the Ottoman Empire, including the regions that Turkish nationals viewed as their heartland. Mustafa Kemal insisted on the country's complete independence and the safeguarding of interests of the Turkish majority on "Turkish soil". He persuaded the GNA to gather a National Army. The GNA army faced theCaliphate army propped up by the Allied occupation forces and had the immediate task of fighting theArmenian forces in theEastern Front and theGreek forces advancing eastward fromSmyrna (today known asİzmir) that theyhad occupied in May 1919, on theWestern Front.[93]
The GNA military successes against theDemocratic Republic of Armenia in the autumn of 1920 and later against the Greeks were made possible by a steady supply of gold and armaments to the Kemalists from the RussianBolshevik government from the autumn of 1920 onwards.[94]
Mustafa Kemal inspects the Turkish troops on 18 June 1922
After a series of battles during theGreco-Turkish War, the Greek army advanced as far as theSakarya River, just eighty kilometers west of Ankara. On 5 August 1921, Mustafa Kemal was promoted tocommander in chief of the forces by the GNA.[95] The ensuingBattle of the Sakarya was fought from 23 August–13 September 1921 and ended with the defeat of the Greeks. After this victory, Mustafa Kemal was given the rank ofMareşal and the title ofGazi by theGrand National Assembly on 19 September 1921. The Allies, ignoring the extent of Mustafa Kemal's successes, hoped to impose a modified version of the Treaty of Sèvres as a peace settlement on Angora, but the proposal was rejected. In August 1922, Mustafa Kemal launched an all-out attack on the Greek lines atAfyonkarahisar in theBattle of Dumlupınar, and Turkish forces regained control of İzmir on 9 September 1922.[96] On 10 September 1922, Mustafa Kemal sent a telegram to theLeague of Nations stating that the Turkish population was so worked up that theAnkara Government would not be responsible for theensuingmassacres.[97]
A British cartoon of 1923 satirising Mustafa Kemal's rule in Turkey
TheConference of Lausanne began on 21 November 1922. Turkey, represented byİsmet İnönü of the GNA, refused any proposal that would compromise Turkish sovereignty,[98] such as the control of Turkish finances, theCapitulations, theStraits and other issues. Although the conference paused on 4 February, it continued after 23 April mainly focusing on the economic issues.[61] On 24 July 1923, theTreaty of Lausanne was signed by the Powers with the GNA, thus recognising the latter as the government of Turkey.
On 29 October 1923, the Republic of Turkey wasproclaimed.[99] Since then,Republic Day has been celebrated as a national holiday on that date.[100]
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With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernise the country started. The new government analyzed the institutions and constitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland and adapted them to the needs and characteristics of the Turkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regarding Mustafa Kemal's intentions, the public cheered: "We are returning to the days of thefirst caliphs."[101] Mustafa Kemal placedFevzi Çakmak,Kâzım Özalp, andİsmet İnönü in political positions where they could institute hisreforms. He capitalized on his reputation as an efficient military leader and spent the following years, up until his death in 1938, instituting political, economic, and social reforms. In doing so, he transformed Turkish society from perceiving itself as a Muslim part of a vast Empire into a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state. This had a positive influence onhuman capital because from then on, what mattered at school was science and education; Islam was concentrated in mosques and religious places.[102]
Domestic policies
Mustafa Kemal at the opening ceremony of theSamsun-Çarşamba railroad (1928)
Mustafa Kemal's driving goal was the complete independence of the country.[103] He clarified his position:
...by complete independence, we mean of course complete economic, financial, juridical, military, cultural independence and freedom in all matters. Being deprived of independence in any of these is equivalent to the nation and country being deprived of all its independence.[104]
He led wide-ranging reforms in social, cultural, and economic aspects, establishing the new Republic's backbone of legislative, judicial, and economic structures. Though he was later idealized by some as an originator of sweeping reforms, many of his reformist ideas were already common in Ottoman intellectual circles at the turn of the 20th century and were expressed more openly after theYoung Turk Revolution.[105]
Mustafa Kemal created abanner to mark the changes between the old Ottoman and the new republican rule. Each change was symbolized as an arrow in this banner. This defining ideology of the Republic of Turkey is referred to as the "Six Arrows", orKemalism. Kemalism is based on Mustafa Kemal's conception ofrealism andpragmatism.[106] The fundamentals of nationalism, populism, andstatism were all defined under the Six Arrows. These fundamentals were not new in world politics or, indeed, among the elite of Turkey. What made them unique was that these interrelated fundamentals were explicitly formulated for Turkey's needs. A good example is the definition and application of secularism; the Kemalist secular state significantly differed from predominantly Christian states.
Emergence of the state, 1923–1924
Mustafa Kemal in 1923, with members of theMevlevi Order, before its institutional expression became illegal and theirdervish lodge was changed into theMevlana Museum. The Mevlevi Order managed to transform itself into a non-political organization which still exists.
Mustafa Kemal's private journal entries dated before the establishment of the republic in 1923 show that he believed in the importance of the sovereignty of the people. In forging the new republic, the Turkish revolutionaries turned their back on the perceived corruption and decadence of cosmopolitan Constantinople and its Ottoman heritage.[107] For instance, they madeAnkara (as Angora has been known in English since 1930), the country's new capital and reformed theTurkish postal service. Once a provincial town deep in Anatolia, the city was thus turned into the center of the independence movement. Mustafa Kemal wanted a "direct government by the Assembly"[108] and visualized arepresentative democracy,parliamentary sovereignty, where the National Parliament would be the ultimate source of power.[108]
In the following years, he altered his stance somewhat; the country needed an immense amount of reconstruction, and "direct government by the Assembly" could not survive in such an environment. The revolutionaries faced challenges from the supporters of the old Ottoman regime, and also from the supporters of newer ideologies such ascommunism andfascism. Mustafa Kemal saw the consequences of fascist and communist doctrines in the 1920s and 1930s and rejected both.[109] He prevented the spread into Turkey of thetotalitarian party rule which held sway in the Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy.[110] Some perceived his opposition and silencing of these ideologies as a means of eliminating competition; others believed it was necessary to protect the young Turkish state from succumbing to the instability of new ideologies and competing factions.[111] Under Mustafa Kemal, the arrest process known as the1927 Detentions (1927 Tevkifatı) was launched, and a widespread arrest policy was put in place against theCommunist Party of Turkey members. Communist political figures such asHikmet Kıvılcımlı,Nâzım Hikmet, and Şefik Hüsnü were tried and sentenced to prison terms. Then, in 1937, a delegation headed by Mustafa Kemal decided to censor the writings of Kıvılcımlı as harmful communist propaganda.[112][113][114]
The heart of the new republic was the GNA, established during the Turkish War of Independence by Mustafa Kemal.[115] The elections were free and used an egalitarian electoral system that was based on a general ballot.[115] Deputies at the GNA served as the voice of Turkish society by expressing its political views and preferences. It had the right to select and control both the government and the Prime Minister. Initially, it also acted as a legislative power, controlling the executive branch and, if necessary, served as an organ of scrutiny under theTurkish Constitution of 1921.[115] TheTurkish Constitution of 1924 set a looseseparation of powers between the legislative and the executive organs of the state, whereas the separation of these two within the judiciary system was a strict one. Mustafa Kemal, then the President, occupied a dominant position in this political system.
The one-party regime was establishedde facto in 1925 after the adoption of the 1924 constitution. The only political party of the GNA was the "People's Party", founded by Mustafa Kemal on 9 September 1923. (But according to the party culture the foundation date was the opening day of Sivas Congress on 4 September 1919). On 10 November 1924, it was renamedCumhuriyet Halk Fırkası orRepublican People's Party (the wordfırka was replaced by the wordparti in 1935).
Civic independence and the Caliphate, 1924–1925
Mustafa Kemal during theRepublic Day celebrations on the second anniversary of the Turkish Republic, 29 October 1925
The abolition of thecaliphate and other cultural reforms were met with fierce opposition. The conservative elements were not appreciative, and they launched attacks on the Kemalist reformists.[116] This was an important dimension in Mustafa Kemal's drive to reform the political system and to promote national sovereignty. By the consensus of the Muslim majority in early centuries, the caliphate was the core political concept ofSunni Islam.[117] Abolishing the sultanate was easier because the survival of the caliphate at the time satisfied the partisans of the sultanate. This produced a split system with the new republic on one side and an Islamic form of government with the Caliph on the other side, and Mustafa Kemal and İnönü worried that "it nourished the expectations that the sovereign would return under the guise of Caliph."[118] CaliphAbdülmecid II was elected after the abolition of the sultanate (1922).
The caliph had his own personal treasury and also had a personal service that included military personnel; Mustafa Kemal said that there was no "religious" or "political" justification for this. He believed that Caliph Abdülmecid II was following in the steps of the sultans in domestic and foreign affairs: accepting of and responding to foreign representatives and reserve officers, and participating in official ceremonies and celebrations.[119] He wanted to integrate the powers of the caliphate into the powers of the GNA. His initial activities began on 1 January 1924, when[119] İnönü, Çakmak, and Özalp consented to the abolition of the caliphate. The caliph made a statement to the effect that he would not interfere with political affairs.[116] On 1 March 1924, at the Assembly, Mustafa Kemal said:
The religion of Islam will be elevated if it will cease to be a political instrument, as had been the case in the past.[120]
On 3 March 1924, the caliphate wasofficially abolished and its powers within Turkey were transferred to the GNA. Other Muslim nations debated the validity of Turkey's unilateralabolition of the caliphate as they decided whether they should confirm the Turkish action or appoint a new caliph.[116] A "Caliphate Conference" was held inCairo in May 1926 and a resolution was passed declaring the caliphate "a necessity in Islam", but failed to implement this decision.[116]
Two other Islamic conferences were held inMecca (1926) andJerusalem (1931), but failed to reach a consensus.[116] Turkey did not accept the re-establishment of the caliphate and perceived it as an attack to its basic existence. Meanwhile, Mustafa Kemal and the reformists continued their own way.[121]
On 8 April 1924,sharia courts were abolished with the law "Mehakim-i Şer'iyenin İlgasına ve Mehakim Teşkilatına Ait Ahkamı Muaddil Kanun".[122][123]
Educational reform
The removal of the caliphate was followed by an extensive effort to establish the separation of governmental and religious affairs. Education was the cornerstone in this effort. In 1923, there were three main educational groups of institutions. The most common institutions weremedreses based on Arabic, the Qur'an, and memorization. The second type of institution was idadî and sultanî, the reformist schools of theTanzimat era. The last group included colleges and minority schools in foreign languages that used the latest teaching models in educating pupils. The old medrese education was modernized.[124] Mustafa Kemal changed the classical Islamic education for a vigorously promoted reconstruction of educational institutions.[124] He linked educational reform to the liberation of the nation fromdogma, which he believed was more important than the Turkish War of Independence. He declared:
Today, our most important and most productive task is the national education [unification and modernization] affairs. We have to be successful in national education affairs and we shall be. The liberation of a nation is only achieved through this way."[125]
In the summer of 1924, Mustafa Kemal invited American educational reformerJohn Dewey to Ankara to advise him on how to reform Turkish education.[124] Hispublic education reforms aimed to prepare citizens for roles in public life through increasing public literacy. He wanted to institute compulsory primary education for both girls and boys; since then this effort has been an ongoing task for the republic. He pointed out that one of the main targets ofeducation in Turkey had to be raising a generation nourished with what he called the "public culture". The state schools established a common curriculum which became known as the "unification of education".
Unification of education was put into force on 3 March 1924 by the Law on Unification of Education (No. 430). With the new law, education became inclusive, organized on a model of the civil community. In this new design, all schools submitted their curriculum to the "Ministry of National Education", a government agency modeled after other countries' ministries of education. Concurrently, the republic abolished the two ministries and made clergy subordinate to thedepartment of religious affairs, one of the foundations ofsecularism in Turkey. The unification of education under one curriculum ended "clerics or clergy of the Ottoman Empire", but was not the end of religious schools in Turkey; they were moved to higher education until later governments restored them to their former position in secondary after Mustafa Kemal's death.
Beginning in the fall of 1925, Mustafa Kemal encouraged the Turks to wearmodern European attire.[126] He was determined to force the abandonment of the sartorial traditions of the Middle East and finalize a series of dress reforms, which were originally started byMahmud II.[126] Thefez was established by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 as part of the Ottoman Empire's modernization effort. TheHat Law of 1925 introduced the use of Western-style hats instead of the fez. Mustafa Kemal first made the hat compulsory for civil servants.[126] The guidelines for the proper dressing of students and state employees were passed during his lifetime; many civil servants adopted the hat willingly. In 1925, Mustafa Kemal wore aPanama hat during a public appearance inKastamonu, one of the most conservative towns in Anatolia, to explain that the hat was the headgear of civilized nations. The last part of reform on dress emphasized the need to wear modern Western suits with neckties as well asFedora and Derby-style hats instead of antiquated religion-based clothing such as the veil and turban in theLaw Relating to Prohibited Garments of 1934.
Even though he personally promoted modern dress for women, Mustafa Kemal never made specific reference to women's clothing in the law, as he believed that women would adapt to the new clothing styles of their own free will. He was frequently photographed on public business with his wifeLâtife Uşaklıgil, who covered her head in accordance with Islamic tradition. He was also frequently photographed on public business with women wearing modern Western clothes. But it was Mustafa Kemal's adopted daughters,Sabiha Gökçen andAfet İnan, who provided the real role model for the Turkish women of the future. He wrote: "The religious covering of women will not cause difficulty ... This simple style [of headcovering] is not in conflict with the morals and manners of our society."[127]
Religious insignia
On 30 August 1925, Mustafa Kemal's view on religious insignia used outside places of worship was introduced in hisKastamonu speech. This speech also had another position. He said:
In the face of knowledge, science, and of the whole extent of radiant civilization, I cannot accept the presence in Turkey's civilized community of people primitive enough to seek material and spiritual benefits in the guidance of sheiks. The Turkish republic cannot be a country of sheiks, dervishes, and disciples. The best, the truest order is the order of civilization. To be a man it is enough to carry out the requirements of civilization. The leaders of dervish orders will understand the truth of my words, and will themselves close down their lodges [tekke] and admit that their disciplines have grown up.[128][129]
On 2 September 1925, the government issued a decree closing down allSufi orders, thetekkes and other religious ideological lodges. Mustafa Kemal ordered thedervish lodges to be converted to museums, such asMevlana Museum in Konya. The institutional expression of religious ideologies became illegal in Turkey; a politically neutral form of any religious ideology, functioning as social associations, was permitted to exist.[130]
Opposition to Mustafa Kemal in 1924–1927
Mustafa Kemal is greeted by marines inBüyükada (14 July 1927).
In 1924, while the "Issue of Mosul" was on the table,Sheikh Said began to organize theSheikh Said Rebellion. Sheikh Said was a wealthy Kurdishtribal chief of a localNaqshbandi order inDiyarbakır. He emphasized the issue of religion; he not only opposed the abolition of the Caliphate, but also the adoption of civil codes based on Western models, the closure of religious orders, the ban on polygamy, and the new obligatory civil marriage. Sheikh stirred up his followers against the policies of the government, which he considered anti-Islamic. In an effort to restore Islamic law, Sheik's forces moved through the countryside, seized government offices and marched on the important cities ofElazığ andDiyarbakır.[131] Members of the government saw the Sheikh Said Rebellion as an attempt at a counter-revolution. They urged immediate military action to prevent its spread. With the support of Mustafa Kemal, the acting prime ministerAli Fethi (Okyar) was replaced withİsmet Pasha (İnönü), who on 3 March 1925 ordered the invocation of the "Law for the Maintenance of Order" in order to deal with the rebellion. It gave the government exceptional powers and included the authority to shut down subversive groups.[132] The law was repealed in March 1927.[133]
There were also parliamentarians in the GNA who were not happy with these changes[who?]. So many members were denounced as opposition sympathizers at a private meeting of theRepublican People's Party (CHP) that Mustafa Kemal expressed his fear of being among the minority in his own party.[134] He decided not to purge this group.[134] After acensure motion gave the chance to have a breakaway group,Kâzım Karabekir, along with his friends, established such a group on 17 October 1924. The censure became a confidence vote at the CHP for Mustafa Kemal. On 8 November, the motion was rejected by 148 votes to 18, and 41 votes were absent.[134] The CHP held all but one seat in the parliament. After the majority of the CHP chose him,[134] Mustafa Kemal said, "the Turkish nation is firmly determined to advance fearlessly on the path of the republic, civilization and progress".[134]
On 17 November 1924, the breakaway group established theProgressive Republican Party (PRP) with 29 deputies and the first multi-party system began. Some of Mustafa Kemal's closest associates who had supported him in the early days of the War of Independence such asRauf Bey (later Rauf Orbay),Refet Pasha, andAli Fuat Pasha (later Ali Fuat Cebesoy) were among the members of the new party. The PRP's economic program suggested liberalism, in contrast to thestatism of the CHP, and its social program was based on conservatism in contrast to themodernism of the CHP. Leaders of the party strongly supported the Kemalist revolution in principle, but had different opinions on the cultural revolution and the principle ofsecularism.[135] The PRP was not against Mustafa Kemal's main positions as declared in its program; they supported establishing secularism in the country and the civil law, or as stated, "the needs of the age" (article 3) and the uniform system of education (article 49).[136] These principles were set by the leaders at the onset. The only legal opposition became a home for all kinds of differing views.
During 1926, aplot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal was uncovered in Smyrna (İzmir). It originated with a former deputy who had opposed the abolition of the Caliphate. What originally was an inquiry into the planners shifted to a sweeping investigation. Ostensibly, its aims were to uncover subversive activities, but in truth, the investigation was used to undermine those disagreeing with Mustafa Kemal's cultural reforms. The investigation brought a number of political activists before the tribunal, including Karabekir, the leader of the PRP. A number of surviving leaders of theCommittee of Union and Progress, includingMehmet Cavid, Ahmed Şükrü, and İsmail Canbulat, were found guilty of treason and hanged.[137] Because the investigation found a link between the members of the PRP and the Sheikh Said Rebellion, the PRP was dissolved following the outcomes of the trial. The pattern of organized opposition was broken; this action was to be the only broad political purge during Mustafa Kemal's presidency. His statement – "My mortal body will turn into dust, but the Republic of Turkey will last forever" – was regarded as a will after the assassination attempt.[138]
In the years following 1926, Mustafa Kemal introduced a radical departure from previous reformations established by the Ottoman Empire.[139] For the first time in history, Islamic law was separated from secular law and restricted to matters of religion.[139] He stated:
We must liberate our concepts of justice, our laws and our legal institutions from the bonds which, even though they are incompatible with the needs of our century, still hold a tight grip on us.[140]
On 1 March 1926, the Turkishpenal code, modelled after the Italian penal code, was passed. On 4 October 1926,Islamic courts were closed. Establishing the civic law needed time, so Mustafa Kemal delayed the inclusion of the principle oflaïcité (the constitutional principle of secularism in France) until 5 February 1937.
In keeping with the Islamic practice ofsex segregation, Ottoman practice discouraged social interaction between men and women. Mustafa Kemal began developing social reforms to address this issue very early, as was evident in his personal journal. He and his staff discussed issues such as abolishing theveiling of women and integrating women into the outside world. His plans to surmount the task were written in his journal in November 1915:
The social change can come by (1) educating capable mothers who are knowledgeable about life; (2) giving freedom to women; (3) a man can change his morals, thoughts, and feelings by leading a common life with a woman; as there is an inborn tendency towards the attraction of mutual affection.[141]
The Incredible Turk, a documentary film about Mustafa Kemal and the modernization of the Turkish Republic.
Mustafa Kemal needed a new civil code to establish his second major step of giving freedom to women. The first part was the education of girls, a feat established with the unification of education. On 4 October 1926, the newTurkish civil code, modelled after theSwiss Civil Code, was passed. Under the new code, women gained equality with men in such matters as inheritance and divorce, since Mustafa Kemal did not consider gender a factor in social organization. According to his view, society marched towards its goal with men and women united. He believed that it was scientifically impossible for Turkey to achieve progress and become civilized if Ottoman gender separation persisted.[142] During a meeting he declaimed:
To the women: Win for us the battle of education and you will do yet more for your country than we have been able to do. It is to you that I appeal. To the men: If henceforward the women do not share in the social life of the nation, we shall never attain to our full development. We shall remain irremediably backward, incapable of treating on equal terms with the civilizations of the West.[143]
Additionally, the Kemalistone-party period of Turkey's labor participation rate was as high as 70%. The participation rate continued to decline after the democratization of Turkey due to the backlash of conservative norms in Turkish society.[144]
In 1927, theState Art and Sculpture Museum (Ankara Resim ve Heykel Müzesi) opened its doors. The museum highlightedsculpture, which was rarely practised in Turkey due to the Islamic tradition of avoiding idolatry. Mustafa Kemal believed that "culture is the foundation of the Turkish Republic",[145] and described modern Turkey's ideological thrust as "a creation of patriotism blended with a lofty humanist ideal". He included both his own nation's creative legacy and what he saw as the admirable values of global civilization. The pre-Islamicculture of the Turks became the subject of extensive research, and particular emphasis was placed on the widespread Turkish culture before theSeljuk andOttoman civilizations. He instigated study ofAnatolian civilizations –Phrygians,Lydians,Sumerians, andHittites. To attract public attention to past cultures, he personally named the banks "Sümerbank" (1932) after the Sumerians and "Etibank" (1935) after the Hittites. He also stressed the folk arts of the countryside as a wellspring of Turkish creativity.
At the time, the republic used theOttoman Turkish language written in theArabic script with Arabic andPersian loan vocabulary.[124] However, as little as 10% of the population was literate. Furthermore, the American reformerJohn Dewey, invited by Mustafa Kemal to assist in educational reform, found that learning how to read and write Turkish in the traditional Arabic script took roughly three years.[124] In the spring of 1928, Mustafa Kemal met in Ankara with several linguists and professors from all over Turkey to unveil his plan to implement a new alphabet for the writtenTurkish language, based on a modifiedLatin alphabet. The newTurkish alphabet would serve as a replacement for the old Arabic script and a solution to the literacy problem, since the new alphabet did not retain the complexities of the Arabic script and could be learned within a few months.[3] When Mustafa Kemal asked the language experts how long it would take to implement the new alphabet into the Turkish language, most of the professors and linguists said between three and five years. Mustafa Kemal was said to have scoffed and openly stated: "We shall do it in three to five months".[146]
Over the next several months, Mustafa Kemal pressed for the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet and made public announcements of the upcoming overhaul. The creation of the alphabet was undertaken by the Language Commission (Dil Encümeni) with the initiative of Mustafa Kemal.[124] On 1 November 1928, he introduced the new Turkish alphabet and abolished the use of the Arabic script. The firstTurkish newspaper using the new alphabet was published on 15 December 1928. Mustafa Kemal himself travelled the countryside in order to teach citizens the new alphabet. After vigorous campaigns, the literacy rate more than doubled from 10.6% in 1927 to 22.4% in 1940.[147] To supplement the literacy reform, a number of congresses were organized on scientific issues, education, history, economics, arts and language.[148] Libraries were systematically developed, and mobile libraries and book transport systems were set up to serve remote districts.[149] Literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new law on copyrights.
Mustafa Kemal promoted modernteaching methods at the primary education level, and Dewey proved integral to the effort.[124] Dewey presented a paradigmatic set of recommendations designed for developing societies moving towards modernity in his "Report and Recommendation for the Turkish educational system".[124] He was interested inadult education with the goal of forming askill base in the country. Turkish women were taught not only child care, dress-making, and household management but also skills necessary for joining the economy outside the home. Mustafa Kemal's unified education program became a state-supervised system, which was designed to create a skill base for the social and economic progress of the country by educating responsible citizens as well as useful and appreciated members of society.[150][124] In addition, Turkish education became an integrative system, aimed to alleviate poverty and usedfemale education to establishgender equality. Mustafa Kemal himself put special emphasis on the education of girls and supportedcoeducation, introducing it at university level in 1923–24 and establishing it as the norm throughout the educational system by 1927.[151] Mustafa Kemal's reforms on education made it significantly more accessible: between 1923 and 1938, the number of students attending primary schools increased by 224% (from 342,000 to 765,000), the number of students attending middle schools increased by 12.5 times (from around 6,000 to 74,000), and the number of students attending high schools increased by almost 17 times (from 1,200 to 21,000).[152]
In 1930, leaving theparliament after the 7th-year celebration meeting
Mustafa Kemal generated media attention to propagate modern education during this period. He instigated official education meetings called "Science Boards" and "Education Summits" to discuss the quality of education, training issues, and certain basic educational principles. He said, "our [schools' curriculum] should aim to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve." He was personally engaged with the development of two textbooks. The first one,Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler (Civic knowledge for the citizens, 1930), introduced the science of comparative government and explained the means of administering public trust by explaining the rules of governance as applied to the new state institutions.[153] The second,Geometri (Geometry, 1937), was a text for high schools and introduced many of the terms currently used in Turkey to describegeometry.[154]
Opposition to Mustafa Kemal in 1930–1931
On 11 August 1930, Mustafa Kemal decided to try a multiparty movement once again and askedFethi Okyar to establish a new party. Mustafa Kemal insisted on the protection of secular reforms. The brand-newLiberal Republican Party succeeded all around the country. However, without the establishment of a real political spectrum, the party became the center to opposition of Mustafa Kemal's reforms, particularly in regard to the role of religion in public life. On 23 December 1930, a chain of violent incidents occurred, instigated by the rebellion of Islamic fundamentalists inMenemen, a small town in theAegean Region. TheMenemen Incident came to be considered a serious threat against secular reforms.
In November 1930, Ali Fethi Okyar dissolved his own party. A more lastingmulti-party period of the Republic of Turkey began in 1945. In 1950, the CHP ceded the majority position to theDemocratic Party. This came amidst arguments that Mustafa Kemal's single-party rule did not promotedirect democracy. The reason experiments withpluralism failed during this period was that not all groups in the country had agreed to a minimal consensus regarding shared values (mainly secularism) and shared rules for conflict resolution. In response to such criticisms, Mustafa Kemal's biographerAndrew Mango writes: "between the two wars, democracy could not be sustained in many relatively richer and better-educated societies. Mustafa Kemal's enlightened authoritarianism left a reasonable space for free private lives. More could not have been expected in his lifetime."[155] Even though, at times, he did not appear to be a democrat in his actions, Mustafa Kemal always supported the idea of building acivil society: a system of voluntary civic and social organizations and institutions as opposed to the force-backed structures of the state. In one of his many speeches about the importance of democracy, Mustafa Kemal said in 1933:
Republic means the democratic administration of the state. We founded the Republic, reaching its tenth year. It should enforce all the requirements of democracy as the time comes.[156]
Modernization efforts, 1931–1938
In 1931, during the establishment ceremony of theTurkish History Institution. Atatürk is standing withAfet İnan (on his left) andYusuf Akçura (first from the left).Atatürk at the opening of the Türkkuşu flight school inEtimesgut on 3 May 1935
In 1931, Atatürk established theTurkish Language Association (Türk Dil Kurumu) for conducting research works in theTurkish language. TheTurkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) was established in 1931, and began maintaining archives in 1932 for conducting research works on thehistory of Turkey.[157] On 1 January 1928, he established theTurkish Education Association,[157] which supported intelligent and hard-working children in financial need, as well as material and scientific contributions to the educational life. In 1933, Atatürk ordered the reorganization ofIstanbul University into a modern institution and later establishedAnkara University in the capital city.[158]
Atatürk dealt with the translation of scientificterminology into Turkish.[159] He wanted the Turkish language reform to be methodologically based. Any attempt to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign influence without modelling the integral structure of the language was inherently wrong to him. He personally oversaw the development of theSun Language Theory (Güneş Dil Teorisi), which was alinguistic theory which proposed that all human languages were descendants of oneCentral Asian primal language. His ideas could be traced to the work by the French scientistHilaire de Barenton titledL'Origine des Langues, des Religions et des Peuples, which postulates that all languages originated fromhieroglyphs andcuneiform used by Sumerians,[160] and the paper by Austrian linguistHermann F. Kvergić ofVienna titled "La psychologie de quelques éléments des langues Turques" ('The Psychology of Some Elements of theTurkic Languages').[161] Atatürk formally introduced the Sun Language Theory into Turkish political and educational circles in 1935, although he did later correct the more extremist practices.[159]
Saffet Arıkan, a politician who was the head of theTurkish Language Association, said "Ulu Önderimiz Ata Türk Mustafa Kemal" ('Our Great Leader Ata Türk Mustafa Kemal') in the opening speech of the 2nd Language Day on 26 September 1934. Later, the surname "Atatürk" ('father of the Turks') was accepted as the surname of Mustafa Kemal after the adoption of theSurname Law in 1934.[162][163]
Beginning in 1932, several hundred "People's Houses" (Halkevleri) and "People's Rooms" (Halkodaları) across the country allowed greater access to a wide variety of artistic activities, sports, and other cultural events. Atatürk supported and encouraged the visual and theplastic arts, which had been suppressed by Ottoman leaders, who regarded depiction of the human form asidolatry. Many museums opened, architecture began to follow modern trends, andclassical Western music, opera, ballet, and theatre took greater hold in the country. Book and magazine publications increased as well, and the film industry began to grow.
Almost all Qur'ans in Turkey before the 1930s were printed in Old Arabic. However, in 1924, three Turkish translations of the Qur'an were published in Istanbul, and several renderings of theQur'an in the Turkish language were read in front of the public, creating significant controversy.[164] These Turkish Qur'ans were fiercely opposed by members of the religious community, and the incident impelled many leading Muslim modernists to call upon the Turkish Parliament to sponsor a Qur'an translation of suitable quality.[165] With the support of Atatürk, the Parliament approved the project and the Directorate of Religious Affairs appointed Mehmet Akif (Ersoy) to compose aQur'an translation, and the Islamic scholarElmalılı Hamdi Yazır to author a Turkish language Qur'anic commentary (tafsir) titledHak Dini Kur'an Dili (The Qur'an: the Tongue of the Religion of Truth).[166] However, it was only in 1935 that the version of Yazır's work read in public found its way to print.[167] In 1932, Atatürk justified the translation of the Qur'an by stating how he wanted to "teach religion in Turkish to Turkish people who had been practising Islam without understanding it for centuries." Atatürk believed that the understanding of religion and its texts was too important to be left to a small group of people. Thus, his objective was to make the Qur'an accessible to a broader demographic by translating it into modern languages.[168]
In 1934, Atatürk commissioned the first Turkish operatic work,Özsoy. The opera, staged at the People's House in Ankara, was composed byAdnan Saygun and performed by sopranoSemiha Berksoy.[169]
Eighteen female MPs joined the Turkish Parliament with the 1935 general elections.
On 5 December 1934, Turkey moved to grant full political rights to women. The equal rights of women in marriage had already been established in the earlier Turkish civil code.[170] The role of women in Atatürk's cultural reforms was expressed in the civic book prepared under his supervision.[171] In it, he stated:
There is no logical explanation for the political disenfranchisement of women. Any hesitation and negative mentality on this subject is nothing more than a fading social phenomenon of the past. ...Women must have the right to vote and to be elected; because democracy dictates that, because there are interests that women must defend, and because there are social duties that women must perform.[172]
When the modernRepublic of Turkey was founded in 1923, nationalism and secularism were two of the founding principles.[174] Atatürk aimed to create a nation state (ulus devlet) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Kemalism defines the "Turkish People" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation."[175] One of the goals of the establishment of the new Turkish state was to ensure "the domination of Turkish national identity in every aspect of social life from the language that people speak in the streets to the language to be taught at schools, from the education to the industrial life, from the trade to the cadres of state officials, from the civil law to the settlement of citizens to particular regions."[176] The process of unification throughTurkification continued and was fostered under Atatürk's government with such policies asCitizen speak Turkish! (Vatandaş Türkçe konuş!), an initiative created in the 1930s by law students but sponsored by the government. This campaign aimed to put pressure on non-Turkish speakers to speak Turkish in public.[177][178][179][180][181][182][183] However, the campaign went beyond the measures of a mere policy of speaking Turkish to an outright prevention of any other language.[177][178][184][185][186]
Another example of nationalisation was theSurname Law, which obligated the Turkish people to adopt fixed, hereditary surnames and forbade names that contained connotations of foreign cultures, nations, tribes, and religions.[179][183][187][188][189] As a result, many ethnic Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds changed their surnames.[188] Non-Turkish surnames ending with "yan, of, ef, viç, is, dis, poulos, aki, zade, shvili, madumu, veled, bin" could not be registered and were replaced by "-oğlu".[190] Furthermore, thegeographical name changes initiative by the Turkish government replaced non-Turkish geographical and topographic names within theTurkish Republic withTurkish names.[191][192][193][194][195][196] The main proponent of the initiative had been a Turkish homogenization social-engineering campaign which aimed to assimilate geographical or topographical names that were deemed foreign and divisive against Turkish unity. The names that were considered foreign were usually of Armenian, Greek,Laz, Bulgarian, Kurdish, Assyrian, or Arabic origin.[191][193][195][196][197]
The1934 Resettlement Law was a policy adopted by the Turkish government which set forth the basic principles of immigration.[198] The law, however, is regarded by some as a policy of assimilation of non-Turkish minorities through a forced and collective resettlement.[199]
Social policy reforms and economic progress
Atatürk was also credited for his transformational change in Turkish agriculture and ecological development. The Kemalist government planted four million trees, modernized the Turkish agricultural mechanism, implemented flood controls, opened schools in rural areas with rural institutions such as agricultural banks, and implemented land reform that removed heavy taxes on peasants of the Ottoman era. He was described as the "Father of Turkish Agriculture".[200][201] Atatürk also massively boomed the Turkish economy with heavy industrial production increased by 150% and GDP per capita rose from 800 USD to around 2000 USD by late 1930s, on par with Japan.[202]
Atatürk's regime also passed the 1936 Labor Law, which gave substantial wage increases and improved the working conditions of workers in Turkish enterprises.[203]
Foreign policies
Atatürk withKingAmānullāh Khān ofAfghanistan inAnkara, 1928. King Amānullāh attempted to emulate many of Atatürk's reforms in Afghanistan, but was overthrown.
Atatürk's foreign policy followed his motto "Peace at home, peace in the world",[204] a perception of peace linked to his project of civilization and modernization.[205] The outcomes of Atatürk's policies depended on the power of the parliamentary sovereignty established by the Republic.[206] The Turkish War of Independence was the last time Atatürk used his military might in dealing with other countries. Foreign issues were resolved by peaceful methods during his presidency.
The Issue of Mosul, a dispute with the United Kingdom over control ofMosul Vilayet, was one of the first foreign affairs-related controversies of the new Republic. During theMesopotamian campaign,Lieutenant GeneralWilliam Marshall followed the British War Office's instruction that "every effort was to be made to score as heavily as possible on the Tigris before the whistle blew", capturing Mosul three days after the signature of theArmistice of Mudros (30 October 1918).[207] In 1920, theMisak-ı Milli, which consolidated the "Turkish lands", declared that Mosul Vilayet was a part of the historic Turkish heartland. The British were in a precarious situation with the Issue of Mosul and were adopting almost equally desperate measures to protect their interests. For example, theIraqi revolt against the British was suppressed by theRAF Iraq Command during the summer of 1920. From the British perspective, if Atatürk stabilized Turkey, he would then turn his attention to Mosul and penetrate Mesopotamia, where the native population would likely join his cause. Such an event would result in an insurgent and hostile Muslim nation in close proximity to British territory in India.
Atatürk in the days of the Mosul question, 1925
In 1923, Atatürk tried to persuade the GNA that accepting the arbitration of theLeague of Nations at theTreaty of Lausanne did not signify relinquishing Mosul, but rather waiting for a time when Turkey might be stronger. Nevertheless, the artificially drawn border had an unsettling effect on the population on both sides. Later, it was claimed that Turkey began where the oil ends, as the border was drawn by the British geophysicists based on locations of oil reserves. Atatürk did not want this separation.[208] To address Atatürk's concerns, theBritish Foreign SecretaryGeorge Curzon attempted to disclaim the existence of oil in the Mosul area. On 23 January 1923, Curzon argued that the existence of oil was no more than hypothetical.[207] However, according to the biographerH. C. Armstrong, "England wanted Mosul and its oil. The Kurds were the key to Mosul and the oil of Irak."[209]
While three inspectors from the League of Nations Committee were sent to the region to oversee the situation in 1924, theSheikh Said rebellion (1924–1927) set out to establish a new government positioned to cut Turkey's link to Mesopotamia. The relationship between the rebels and Britain was investigated. In fact, British assistance was sought after the rebels decided that the rebellion could not stand by itself.[210]
In 1925, the League of Nations formed a three-member committee to study the case while the Sheikh Said Rebellion was on the rise. Partly because of the continuing uncertainties along the northern frontier (present-day northern Iraq), the committee recommended that the region should be connected to Iraq with the condition that the UK would hold theBritish Mandate of Mesopotamia. By the end of March 1925, the necessary troop movements were completed, and the whole area of the Sheikh Said rebellion was encircled.[211] As a result of these manoeuvres, the revolt was put down. Britain, Iraq, and Atatürk made a treaty on 5 June 1926, which mostly followed the decisions of the League Council. The agreement left a large section of the Kurdish population and theIraqi Turkmen on the non-Turkish side of the border.[212][213]
During a reception at theUSSR Embassy in Ankara, on 7 November 1927Exchanges on the concept of a Balkan Federation during the visit ofVoroshilov, a vision of Atatürk's which was never achieved
In his 26 April 1920 message toVladimir Lenin, the Bolshevik leader and head of theRussian SFSR's government, Atatürk promised to coordinate his military operations with the Bolsheviks' "fight againstimperialist governments" and requested 5 millionlira in gold as well as armaments "as first aid" to his forces.[214] In 1920 alone, the Lenin government supplied the Kemalists with 6,000rifles, over 5 millionrifle cartridges, 17,600 projectiles as well as 200.6 kg of goldbullion. In the subsequent two years, the amount of aid increased.[215]
In March 1921, the GNA representatives in Moscow signed theTreaty of Moscow ("Friendship and Brotherhood" Treaty) with Soviet Russia, which was a major diplomatic breakthrough for the Kemalists. The Treaty of Moscow, followed by the identicalTreaty of Kars in October the same year, gave Turkey a favourable settlement of its north-eastern frontier at the expense of theArmenian Soviet Socialist Republic, then nominally an independent state.
Relations between the two countries were friendly but were based on the fact that they were against a common enemy: Britain and the West.[216] In 1920, Atatürk toyed with the idea of using a state-controlledTurkish Communist Party to forestall the perceived spread of communist ideas in the country and gain access to theComintern's financing.
Despite his relations with the Soviet Union, Atatürk was not willing to commit Turkey to communism. "Friendship with Russia," he said, "is not to adopt their ideology of communism for Turkey."[216] Moreover, Atatürk declared, "Communism is a social issue. Social conditions, religion, and national traditions of our country confirm the opinion that Russian Communism is not applicable in Turkey."[217] And in a speech on 1 November 1924, he said, "Our amicable relations with our old friend the Soviet Russian Republic are developing and progressing every day. As in past our Republican Government regards genuine and extensive good relations with Soviet Russia as the keystone of our foreign policy."[216]
After the Turks withdrew their delegation fromGeneva on 16 December 1925, they left the League of Nations Council to grant a mandate for the Mosul region to Britain without their consent. Atatürk countered[218] by concluding anon-aggression pact with the USSR on 17 December.[219] In 1935, the pact was prolonged for another 10 years.[220]
In 1933, theSoviet Defence MinisterKliment Voroshilov visited Turkey and attended the tenth year celebrations of the Republic.[221] Atatürk explained his position regarding the realization of his plan for aBalkan Federation economically uniting Turkey, Greece, Romania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria.[221]
During the second half of the 1930s, Atatürk tried to establish a closer relationship with Britain and other major Western powers, which caused displeasure on the part of the Soviets. The second edition of theGreat Soviet Encyclopedia (Volume 20, 1953) was unequivocally critical of Atatürk's policies in the last years of his rule, calling his domestic policies "anti-popular" and his foreign course as aimed atrapprochement with the "imperialist powers".[222]
Turkish-Greek alliance
The post-war leader of Greece,Eleftherios Venizelos, was also determined to establish normal relations between his country and Turkey. The war had devastatedWestern Anatolia, and the financial burden ofOttoman Muslim refugees from Greece blocked rapprochement. Venizelos moved forward with an agreement with Turkey, despite accusations of conceding too much on the issues of naval armaments and the properties of Ottoman Greeks from Turkey.[223] In spite of Turkish animosity against the Greeks, Atatürk resisted the pressures of historic enmities and was sensitive towards past tensions; at one point, he ordered the removal of a painting showing a Turkish soldier plunging his bayonet into a Greek soldier by stating, "What a revolting scene!"[224]
Greece renounced all its claims over Turkish territory, and the two sides concluded an agreement on 30 April 1930. On 25 October, Venizelos visited Turkey and signed a treaty of friendship.[225] Venizelos even forwarded Atatürk's name for the 1934Nobel Peace Prize.[226] Even after Venizelos' fall from power, Greco-Turkish relations remained cordial. Indeed, Venizelos' successorPanagis Tsaldaris came to visit Atatürk in September 1933 and signed a more comprehensive agreement called theEntente Cordiale between Greece and Turkey, which was a stepping stone for theBalkan Pact.[227]
Greek PremierIoannis Metaxas once stated, with regard to Atatürk, that "...Greece, which has the highest estimation of the renowned leader, heroic soldier, and enlightened creator of Turkey. We will never forget that President Atatürk was the true founder of the Turkish-Greek alliance based on a framework of common ideals and peaceful cooperation. He developed ties of friendship between the two nations which it would be unthinkable to dissolve. Greece will guard its fervent memories of this great man, who determined an unalterable future path for the noble Turkish nation."[228]
From 1919, Afghanistan was in the midst of areformation period underAmanullah Khan. Afghan Foreign MinisterMahmud Tarzi was a follower of Atatürk's domestic policy. Tarzi encouraged Amanullah Khan in social and political reform but urged that reforms should built on a strong government. During the late 1920s, Anglo-Afghan relations soured over British fears of an Afghan-Soviet friendship. On 20 May 1928, Anglo-Afghan politics gained a positive perspective, when Amanullah Khan and his wife, QueenSoraya Tarzi, were received by Atatürk in Istanbul.[229] This meeting was followed by a Turkey-Afghanistan Friendship and Cooperation pact on 22 May 1928. Atatürk supported Afghanistan's integration into international organizations. In 1934, Afghanistan's relations with the international community improved significantly when it joined the League of Nations.[230] Mahmud Tarzi received Atatürk's personal support until he died on 22 November 1933 in Istanbul.
Atatürk andReza Shah, leader of Iran, had a common approach regardingBritish imperialism and its influence in their countries, resulting in a slow but continuous rapprochement between Ankara and Tehran. Both governments sent diplomatic missions and messages of friendship to each other during the Turkish War of Independence.[231] The policy of the Ankara government in this period was to give moral support in order to reassure Iranian independence and territorial integrity.[232] The relations between the two countries were strained after the abolishment of the Caliphate. Iran'sShi'a clergy did not accept Atatürk's stance, and Iranian religious power centres perceived the real motive behind Atatürk's reforms was to undermine the power of the clergy.[232] By the mid-1930s, Reza Shah's efforts had upset the clergy throughout Iran, thus widening the gap between religion and government.[233] As Russia and Great Britain strengthened their holds in the Middle East, Atatürk feared the occupation and dismemberment of Iran as a multi-ethnic society by these European powers.[232] Like Atatürk, Reza Shah wanted to secure Iran's borders, and in 1934, the Shah visited Atatürk.
In 1935, the draft of what would become theTreaty of Saadabad was paragraphed in Geneva, but its signing was delayed due to theborder dispute between Iran and Iraq. On 8 July 1937, Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan signed theSaadabad Pact atTehran. The signatories agreed to preserve their common frontiers, to consult together in all matters of common interest, and to commit no aggression against one another's territory. The treaty united the Afghan KingZahir Shah's call for greater Oriental-Middle Eastern cooperation, Reza Shah's goal in securing relations with Turkey that would help free Iran from Soviet and British influence, and Atatürk's foreign policy of ensuring stability in the region. The treaty's immediate outcome, however, was deterring Italian leaderMussolini from interfering in the Middle East.[234]
Turkish Straits
Atatürk observes the Turkish troops during the military exercise on 28 May 1936.
On 24 July 1923, theTreaty of Lausanne included the Lausanne Straits Agreement. The Lausanne Straits Agreement stated that theDardanelles should remain open to all commercial vessels: seizure of foreign military vessels was subject to certain limitations during peacetime, and, even as a neutral state, Turkey could not limit any military passage during wartime. The Lausanne Straits Agreement stated that the waterway was to be demilitarised and its management left to the Straits Commission. The demilitarised zone heavily restricted Turkey's domination and sovereignty over the Straits, and the defence ofIstanbul was impossible without sovereignty over the water that passed through it.
In March 1936, Hitler'sreoccupation of the Rhineland gave Atatürk the opportunity to resume full control over the Straits. "The situation in Europe", Atatürk declared "is highly appropriate for such a move. We shall certainly achieve it".[235]Tevfik Rüştü Aras, Turkey's foreign minister, initiated a move to revise the Straits' regime. Aras claimed that he was directed by Atatürk, rather than the Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü. İnönü was worried about harming relations with Britain, France, and Balkan neighbors over the Straits. However, the signatories of the Treaty of Lausanne agreed to join the conference, since unlimited military passage had become unfavourable to Turkey with the changes in world politics. Atatürk demanded that the members of the Turkish Foreign Office devise a solution that would transfer full control of the waterway to Turkey.
On 20 July 1936, theMontreux Convention was signed by Bulgaria, Great Britain, Australia, France, Japan, Romania, the Soviet Union, Turkey, Yugoslavia and Greece. It became the primary instrument governing the passage of commercial and war vessels through the Dardanelles Strait. The agreement was ratified by theGNAT on 31 July 1936 and went into effect on 9 November 1936.[236]
Until the early 1930s, Turkey followed a neutral foreign policy with the West by developing joint friendship and neutrality agreements. These bilateral agreements aligned with Atatürk's worldview. By the end of 1925, Turkey had signed fifteen joint agreements with Western states.
In the early 1930s, changes and developments in world politics required Turkey to make multilateral agreements to improve its security. Atatürk strongly believed that close cooperation between the Balkan states based on the principle of equality would have an important effect on European politics. These states had been ruled by the Ottoman Empire for centuries and had proved to be a powerful force. While the origins of the Balkan agreement may date as far back as 1925, the Balkan Pact came into being in the mid-1930s. Several important developments in Europe helped the original idea materialise, such as improvements in the Turkish-Greek alliance and the rapprochement between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. The most important factor in driving Turkish foreign policy from the mid-1930s onwards was the fear of Italy.Benito Mussolini had frequently proclaimed his intention to place the entireMediterranean under Italian control. Both the Turks and the various Balkan states felt threatened by Italian ambitions.
TheBalkan Pact was negotiated by Atatürk with Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia. This mutual-defence agreement intended to guarantee the signatories' territorial integrity and political independence against attack from another Balkan state such as Bulgaria or Albania. It countered the increasingly aggressive foreign policy of fascist Italy and the effect of a potential Bulgarian alignment with Nazi Germany. Atatürk thought of the Balkan Pact as a medium of balance in Turkey's relations with the European countries.[237] He was particularly anxious to establish a region of security and alliances to the west of Turkey in Europe, which the Balkan Pact helped achieve.[238]
The Balkan Pact provided for regular military and diplomatic consultations. The importance of the agreement is best seen in a message Atatürk sent to the Greek PremierIoannis Metaxas:
The borders of the allies in the Balkan Pact are a single border. Those who covet this border will encounter the burning beams of the sun. I recommend avoiding this. The forces that defend our borders are a single and inseparable force.[239]
The Balkan Pact was signed by the GNA on 28 February. The Greek and Yugoslav Parliaments ratified the agreement a few days later. The unanimously ratified Balkan pact was formally adopted on 18 May 1935 and lasted until 1940.[citation needed]
The Balkan Pact turned out to be ineffective for reasons that were beyond Atatürk's control. The pact failed when Bulgaria attempted to raise theDobruja issue, only to end with theItalian invasion of Albania on 7 April 1939. Theseconflicts spread rapidly, eventually triggering World War II. The goal of Atatürk to protect southeast Europe failed with the dissolution of the pact. In 1938, theTurkish Army at peacetime strength consisted of 174,000 soldiers and 20,000officers forming 11army corps, 23divisions, one armouredbrigade, 3cavalry brigades, and 7 frontier commands.[240][241]
Issue of Hatay
Telegram sent by Atatürk after the local legislative assembly accepted his proposal for theHatay State's flag
During the second half of the 1930s, Atatürk tried to form a closer relationship with Britain. The risks of this policy change put the two men at odds. The Hatay issue and the Lyon agreement were two important developments in foreign policy that played a significant role in severing relations between Atatürk and İnönü.
In 1936, Atatürk raised the "Issue of Hatay" at the League of Nations.Hatay was based on the old administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire called theSanjak of Alexandretta. On behalf of the League of Nations, the representatives of France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Turkey prepared a constitution for Hatay, which established it as an autonomoussanjak within Syria. Despite some inter-ethnic violence, an election was conducted in 1938 by the local legislative assembly. The cities ofAntakya (Antioch) andİskenderun (Alexandretta) joined Turkey in 1939.[242]
Atatürk instigated economic policies to develop small and large scale businesses, but also to create social strata (i.e. industrial bourgeoisie coexisting with the peasantry of Anatolia) that were virtually non-existent during the Ottoman Empire. The primary problem faced by the politics of his period was the lag in the development of political institutions and social classes which would steer such social and economic changes.[243] Atatürk's vision regarding early Turkish economic policy was apparent during theİzmir Economic Congress of 1923. The initial choices of Atatürk's economic policies reflected the realities of his time. After World War I, due to the lack of any real potential investors to fund private sector industry, Atatürk established many state-owned factories for agriculture, machinery, and textile industries.
State intervention, 1923–1929
Atatürk andCelâl Bayar visiting the Sümerbank Nazilli Cotton Factory, which was established as a part of the cotton-related industry
Atatürk andİsmet İnönü's pursuit of state-controlled economic policies was guided by a national vision; their goal was to knit the country together, eliminate foreign control of the economy, and improve communications within Turkey. Resources were channeled away from Istanbul, a trading port with international foreign enterprises, in favor of other, less developed cities in order to achieve a more balanced economic development throughout the country.[244]
For Atatürk and his supporters, tobacco remained wedded to his pursuit of economic independence.Turkish tobacco was an important industrial crop, but its cultivation and manufacture had been under French monopolies granted bycapitulations of the Ottoman Empire. The tobacco and cigarette trade was controlled by two French companies: theRegie Company and Narquileh Tobacco.[245] The Ottoman Empire had given the tobacco monopoly to theOttoman Bank as a limited company under theCouncil of the Public Debt. Regie, as part of the council, had control over tobacco production, storage, and distribution (including export) with unchallenged price control. Consequently, Turkish farmers were dependent on the company for their livelihoods.[246] In 1925, Regie was taken over by the state and namedTekel. Government control of tobacco was one of the greatest achievements of the Kemalist political machinery's "nationalization" of the economy for a country that did not produceoil. Kemalists accompanied this achievement with the development of the country's cotton industry, which peaked during the early 1930s.[247][248] Cotton was the second most important industrial crop in Turkey at the time.
In 1924, with the initiative of Atatürk, the first Turkish bankİş Bankası was established, with Atatürk as the bank's first member. The bank's creation was a response to the growing need for a truly national establishment and a banking system which was capable of backing up economic activities, managing funds accumulated through policies of savings incentives, and offering resources where necessary to trigger industrial impetus.[249]
In 1927,Turkish State Railways was established. Because Atatürk considered the development of a nationalrail network as another important step in industrialisation, railways were given high priority. The Turkish State Railway developed an extensive railway network in a very short time.[citation needed]
The Turkish government under Atatürk developed many economic and infrastructure projects within the first decade of the republic. However, the Turkish economy was still largely agrarian, with primitive tools and methods. Roads and transportation facilities were still far from sufficient, and management of the economy was inefficient.[citation needed] TheGreat Depression brought many changes to this picture.
Great Depression, 1929–1931
Atatürk supported large-scale government subsidized industrial complexes, such asSümerbank, increasingly after theGreat Depression.
The young republic, like the rest of the world, found itself in a deep economic crisis during theGreat Depression. Atatürk reacted to conditions of this period by moving toward integrated economic policies and establishing a central bank to control exchange rates. However, Turkey could not finance essential imports; its currency was shunned, and zealous revenue officials seized the meagre possessions of peasants who could not pay their taxes.[244]
In 1929, Atatürk signed a treaty that resulted in therestructuring of Turkey's debt with theOttoman Public Debt Administration. At the time, Atatürk not only had to deal with the payment of theOttoman public debt but also the turbulent economic issues of the Great Depression. For example, until the early 1930s, Turkish private business could not acquire exchange credits. It was impossible to integrate the Turkish economy without a solution to these problems.[citation needed]
From thepolitical economy perspective, Atatürk faced the problem of political upheaval. The establishment of a new party with a different economic perspective was necessary; he asked Ali Fethi Okyar to meet this end. TheLiberal Republican Party (August 1930) was founded with a liberal program and proposed that state monopolies should be ended, foreign capital should be attracted, and state investment should be curtailed. Nevertheless, Atatürk maintained the view that "it is impossible to attract foreign capital for essential development," and state capitalism became the dominant agenda during the depression era. In 1931, Atatürk proclaimed: "In the economic area ...the programme of the party is statism."[251] However, the effect of free republicans was felt strongly and state intervention became more moderate and more akin to a form ofstate capitalism. One of Atatürk's radical left-wing supporters,Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu from theKadro (The Cadre) movement, claimed that Atatürk found a third way between capitalism and socialism.[252]
Liberalization and planned growth, 1931–1939
Atatürk andİsmet İnönü at Nazilli Cotton Factory (1937)
The first (1929–1933) and second five-year economic plans were enacted under the supervision of Atatürk. The first five-year economic plan promoted consumer substitution industries. However, these economic plans changed drastically with the death of Atatürk and the rise of World War II. Subsequent governments took measures that harmed the economic productivity of Turkey in various ways.[253] The achievements of the 1930s were credited to early 1920s implementations of the economic system based on Atatürk's national policies.[254]
In 1931, Atatürk watched the development of the first national aircraft, MMV-1. He realised the important role of aviation and stated, "the future lies in the skies".[255] TheTurkish Aeronautical Association was founded on 16 February 1925 by his directive.[256] He also ordered the establishment of the Turkish Aircraft Association Lottery. Instead of the traditional raffle prizes, this new lottery paid money prizes. Most of the lottery income was used to establish a new factory and fund aviation projects.[257] However, Atatürk did not live to see the flight of the first Turkish military aircraft built at that factory. Operational AmericanCurtiss Hawk fighters were being produced in Turkey soon after his death and before the onset of World War II.[citation needed]
Atatürk and Celâl Bayar
In 1932, liberal economistCelâl Bayar became the Minister of Economy at Atatürk's request and served until 1937.[258] During this period, the country moved toward a mixed economy with its first private initiatives. Textile, sugar, paper, and steel factories (financed by a loan from Britain) were the private sectors of the period. Besides these businesses, government-owned power plants, banks, and insurance companies were established. In this period, Atatürk promoted public-private sector cooperation and the expansion of private businesses with private shareholders firms allowed to purchase shares in state-owned enterprises.
In 1935, the first Turkish cotton print factory "NazilliCalico print factory" opened. As part of the industrialization process, cotton planting was promoted to furnish raw material for future factory settlements.[259] By 1935,Nazilli became a major industrial center beginning with the establishment ofcotton mills followed by a calico print factory.[260][261]
In 1936, Turkish industrialistNuri Demirağ established the first Turkish aircraft factory in theBeşiktaş district ofIstanbul.[262] The first Turkish airplanes,Nu D.36 andNu D.38, were produced in this factory.[262]
On 25 October 1937, Atatürk appointedCelâl Bayar as the prime minister of the 9th government. Integrated economic policies reached their peak with the signing of the 1939 Treaty with Britain and France.[253] The treaty signaled a turning point in Turkish history since it was the first step towards an alliance with the West.[253] After İsmet İnönü became president in 1938, the differences between İnönü (who promoted state control) and Bayar (who was liberal) came to the forefront. On 25 January 1939, Prime Minister Bayar resigned.[263]
Atatürk also supported the establishment of the automobile industry. TheTurkish Automobile Association was founded in 1923,[264] and its motto was: "The Turkish driver is a man of the most exquisite sensitivities."[265]
In 1935, Turkey was becoming an industrial society based on the Western European model set by Atatürk.[266] However, the gap between Atatürk's goals and the achievements of the socio-political structure of the country had not yet been closed.[266]
Atatürk's name is associated with four women:Eleni Karinte,Fikriye Hanım, Dimitrina Kovacheva,[267][268] andLatife Uşşaki. After the Turkish army entered İzmir in 1922, Atatürk met Latife while staying at the house of her father, the shipping magnate Muammer Uşakizade (later Uşaklı). Latife fell in love with Atatürk; again the extent to which this was reciprocated is unknown, but Atatürk was impressed by Latife's intellect: she was a graduate of theSorbonne and was studying English in London when the war broke out. On 29 January 1923, they were married. Latife was jealous of Fikriye and demanded that she leave the house in Çankaya; Fikriye was devastated and immediately left in a carriage. According to official accounts, she shot herself with a pistol Atatürk had given her as a present.[269]
The triangle of Atatürk, Fikriye, and Latife became the subject of a manuscript by Atatürk's close friend, Salih Bozok, though the work remained unpublished until 2005.[270] Latife was briefly and literally the face of the new Turkish woman, appearing in public in Western clothing with her husband.[271] However, their marriage was not happy; after frequent arguments, the two were divorced on 5 August 1925.[272]
During his lifetime, Atatürk adopted thirteen children: a boy and twelve girls. Of these, the most famous isSabiha Gökçen, Turkey's first female pilot and the world's first female fighter pilot.[273]
Atatürk's religious beliefs became a subject of debate.[274] Not much is known about his personal beliefs prior to 1920.[275] Even though Atatürk has been critical about the Islamic orthodoxy, especially Sufism, and referred to them as superstitional and accused thetariqats of spreading primitivity and stupidity, there are also positive affirmations of Islam in his speeches. For example, he is quoted as saying that "our religion is the most reasonable and most natural" (en makul ve tabii) and that this is the reason why it is the last religion.[276][better source needed]
It is known that he deeply engaged with the Islamic religion and in his speech in 1920 he emphasized the sacredness of the Caliphate and the Sultanate.[277] After the British occupation, Atatürk won the favor of 153 Anatolianmuftis who formulated five fatwas against the religious rebellion agitated by Şeyhülislam Dürrizade Abdullah.[278] Furthermore, Atatürk prompoted the translation of the Quran into Turkish and ordered acommentary (tefsir) for the Turkish Republic.
Researchers have argued that his discourses about Islam are periodic and that his positive views related to this subject are limited in the early 1920s.[279] According to various sources, Atatürk was anagnostic, i.e. non-doctrinairedeist,[280][281] or even anatheist,[282][283][284] who wasantireligious and anti-Islamic in general.[285]
Heidi Weidel considers Atatürk's expression as a form ofnaturalistic religion, not a reference to Islam.[286] Jens Peter Laut also argues that Atatürk's expressions in favor of Islam are merely political calculations.[287] His translation of the Quran into Turkish, so Laut, was also intended to invoke theBaşka yok mu?-effect (where is nothing more to it?-effect), which should naturally repel Turks from believing in Islam after learning the meaning of the Arabic text whereby exposing the Quran as prophetic word, rather than the verbatim of God.[288]
A view from the state funeral of Atatürk, November 1938
Throughout most of his life, Atatürk was a moderate-to-heavy drinker, often consuming half a litre ofrakı a day; he also smoked tobacco, predominantly in the form ofcigarettes.[289][290][291] During 1937, indications that Atatürk's health was worsening started to appear. In early 1938, while on a trip toYalova, he suffered from a serious illness. He went to Istanbul for treatment, where he was diagnosed withcirrhosis. During his stay in Istanbul, he made an effort to keep up with his regular lifestyle, but eventually succumbed to his illness. He died on 10 November 1938, at the age of 57,[292] in theDolmabahçe Palace.[293] He was succeeded by İsmet İnönü as president.[294]
Atatürk's funeral called forth both sorrow and pride in Turkey, and 17 countries sent special representatives, while nine contributed armed detachments to thecortège.[204] Atatürk's remains were originally laid to rest in theEthnography Museum of Ankara, but they were transferred on 10 November 1953 (15 years after his death) in a 42-tonsarcophagus to a mausoleum overlooking Ankara,Anıtkabir.[295]
In hiswill, Atatürk donated all of his possessions to the Republican People's Party, provided that the yearly interest of his funds[296] would be used to look after his sister Makbule and his adopted children, and fund the higher education of İsmet İnönü's children.[297] The remainder was willed to theTurkish Language Association and theTurkish Historical Society.[298][297]
Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Atatürk inAnkara, is visited by large crowds every year during national holidays such as Republic Day on October 29.
Kemal Atatürk is commemorated by many memorials throughout Turkey, such as theAtatürk International Airport in Istanbul, theAtatürk Bridge over theGolden Horn (Haliç), theAtatürk Dam, andAtatürk Stadium. Atatürk statues have been erected in all Turkish cities by the Turkish Government, and most towns have their own memorial to him. His face and name are seen and heard everywhere in Turkey; his portrait can be seen in public buildings, in schools, on allTurkish lira banknotes, and in the homes of many Turkish families.[299] At 9:05 am on every 10 November, at the exact time of Atatürk's death, most vehicles and people in the country's streets pause for one minute in remembrance.[300]
Associated Press news article about the admiration of women from different parts of the world for Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,the handsome leader of the Turkish Republic
Despite his radical secular reforms, Atatürk remained broadly popular in the Muslim world.[304] He is remembered for being the creator of a new, fully independent Muslim country at a time of encroachment by Christian powers, and for having prevailed in a struggle against Western imperialism.[304] When he died, theAll-India Muslim League eulogised him as a "truly great personality in the Islamic world, a great general, and a great statesman", declaring that his memory would "inspire Muslims all over the world with courage, perseverance, and manliness".[304]
The range of Atatürk's admirers extends from the British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill, his opponent inWorld War I, to the GermanNazi leader and dictatorAdolf Hitler,[305][306][307][308] who called Atatürk a "star in the darkness".[309] Some presidents of the United States, includingFranklin D. Roosevelt andJohn F. Kennedy, also respected Atatürk. President Kennedy paid tribute to Atatürk in 1963 on the 25th anniversary of his death.[310]
As a role model that encouraged national sovereignty, Atatürk was especially revered in countries of the so-calledThird World, which saw him as the pioneer of independence from colonial powers. The leaders of such countries included Atatürk's Iranian contemporaryReza Shah Pahlavi, the Indian Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehru, the Tunisian PresidentHabib Bourguiba, and the Egyptian PresidentAnwar Sadat.[311][312][313] The Pakistani poet and philosopherMuhammad Iqbal and theBangladeshi national poetKazi Nazrul Islam wrote poems in his honor.
In the epilogue ofGrey Wolf, Mustafa Kemal: An Intimate Study of a Dictator, first published in 1932 and the first biography of Atatürk published in his lifetime,H. C. Armstrong described him as a "man born out of due season" and compared him toTimur andGenghis Khan.[314]
The Twelfth International Women Conference was held inIstanbul,Turkey on 18 April 1935, and Egyptian nationalist-feministHuda Sha'arawi was elected by the conference as the vice-president of the International Women's Union. Huda considered Atatürk as a role model for her actions.[315]
As the leader of thenational movement of 1919–1923, Atatürk was described by theAllies and Istanbul journalistAli Kemal (who believed the liberation efforts would fail and cause a more severe punishment by the Allies) as a "bandit chief". British statesmanArthur Balfour in this context called Atatürk the "most terrible of all the terrible Turks".[316] His critics denounce him as an authoritarian despot responsible for numerous acts of repression and massacres. During his presidency, several instances of violence were committed against Kurdish rebels.[317] According to Turkish Army generalOsman Pamukoğlu, Atatürk personally gave the operational order ofDersim massacre (1937–1938) against the rebellion.[318]
Works
Cumalı Ordugâhı - Süvâri: Bölük, Alay, Liva Tâlim ve Manevraları[Cumalı Camp - Cavalry: Company, Regiment, Brigade Training and Maneuvers], Thessaloniki, 1909.
Ta’biye ve Tatbîkat Seyahati [Organization and Application Trip], Selanik Askeri Matbaası, 1911.
Ta’biye Mes’elesinin Halli ve Emirlerin Sûret-i Tahrîrine Dâir Nasâyih [Advice on the Solution to the Problem of Organization and the Methods of Recording Orders], Edirne Sanayi Mektebi Matbaası, 1916.
Taʼlîm ve Terbiye-i Askeriyye Hakkında Nokta-i Nazarlar [Points of View on Instruction and Military Training], Edirne Sanayi Mektebi Matbaası, 1916.
Zâbit ve Kumandan ile Hasb-ı Hâl[Discourse with an Officer and a Commander], Minber Matbaası, 1918.
^Ottoman Turkish:مصطفی كمال پاشا;Turkish:Mustafa Kemal Paşa; in this Ottoman Turkish style name, the given name isMustafa Kemal, the title isPasha, and there is no family name.
^Ottoman Turkish:غازی مصطفی كمال; Turkish:Gazi Mustafa Kemal; in this Ottoman Turkish style name, the given name isMustafa Kemal, the title isGhazi, and there is no family name.
^Also known asMustafa Kemal Pasha[d] until 1921, andGhazi Mustafa Kemal[e] from 1921 until theSurname Law of 1934[2]
^His birthday is unknown. 19 May–the day he landed to Samsun in 1919 to start the nationalist resistance–is considered his symbolic birthday. It was also claimed that he was born in 1880. SeePersonal life of Atatürk § Birth date
^abcKandogan, Eser; Seferoglu, Süleyman Sadi (12 January 1994)."Ataturk: Creator of Modern Turkey / Mustafa Kemal Atatürk". Türkiye On The Web: A Cultural Warehouse.Thousand Lakes Web Pages. New York: Columbia University.Archived from the original on 9 November 2015. Retrieved22 November 2017.
^Ali Fuat Cebesoy,Sınıf arkadaşım Atatürk: okul ve genç subaylık hâtıraları, İnkılâp ve Aka Kitabevleri, 1967,p. 6.Archived 8 April 2023 at theWayback MachineBenim adım Mustafa. Senin adın da Mustafa. Arada bir fark olmalı, ne dersin, senin adının sonuna bir de Kemal koyalım.
^Niyazi Ahmet Banoğlu,Atatürk'ün İstanbul'daki Hayatı, volume 2, Millî Eğitim Matbaası, 1974, p. 131.İstihbaratımıza nazaran, Atatürk'ün taşıdığı Kamâl adı Arapça bir kelime olmadığı gibi, Arapça Kemal kelimesinin delâlet ettiği manada da değildir. Atatürk'ün muhafaza edilen öz adı, Türkçe 'ordu ve kale' manasında olan Kamâl'dır. Son 'â' üstündeki tahfif işareti 'l'i yumuşattığı için, telâffuz hemen hemen Arapça 'Kemal' telâffuzuna yaklaşır.
^Andrew MangoAtatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey, Overlook Press, 2002,ISBN978-1-58567-334-6,pp. 25–27Archived 23 April 2023 at theWayback Machine, pp. 27ff. – "Feyzullah's family is said to have come from the country near Vodina (now Edhessa in western Greek Macedonia). The surname Sofuzade, meaning 'son of a pious man', suggests that the ancestors of Zübeyde and Ali Rıza had a similar background. Cemil Bozok, son of Salih Bozok, who was a distant cousin of Mustafa Kemal and, later, his ADC, claims to have been related to both Ali Rıza's and Zübeyde's families. This would mean that the families of Mustafa Kemal's parents were interrelated. Cemil Bozok also notes that his paternal grandfather, Safer Efendi, was of Albanian origin. This may have a bearing on the vexed question of Mustafa Kemal's ethnic origin. Mustafa Kemal's parents and relatives all used Turkish as their mother tongue. This suggests that some at least of their ancestors had originally come from Turkey, since local Muslims of Albanian and Slav origin who had no ethnic connection with Turkey spoke Albanian, Serbo-Croat or Bulgarian, at least so long as they remained in their native land.But in looks Atatürk resembled local Albanians and Slavs.[...] But there is no evidence that either Ali Riza or Zübeyde was descended from such Turkish nomads." page 28; "It is much more likely that Atatürk inherited his looks from his Balkan ancestors.[...] But Albanians and Slavs are likely to have figured among his ancestors."
^Mango, Andrew,Atatürk: the biography of the founder of modern Turkey, (Overlook TP, 2002), p. 27.
^Falih Rıfkı Atay,Çankaya: Atatürk'ün doğumundan ölümüne kadar, İstanbul: Betaş, 1984, p. 17.(in Turkish)
^Vamık D. Volkan & Norman Itzkowitz,Ölümsüz Atatürk (Immortal Atatürk), Bağlam Yayınları, 1998,ISBN975-7696-97-8, p. 37, dipnote no. 6 (Atay, 1980, s. 17)
^Cunbur, Müjgân.Türk dünyası edebiyatçıları ansiklopedisi, 2. cilt (2004), Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Başkanlığı: "Babası Ali Rıza Efendi (doğ. 1839), annesi Zübeyde Hanımdır, baba dedesi Hafız Ahmet Efendi, 14–15. yy.da Anadolu'dan göç ederek Makedonya'ya yerleşen Kocacık Yörüklerindendir."
^Kartal, Numan.Atatürk ve Kocacık Türkleri (2002), T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı: "Aile Selânik'e Manastır ilinin Debrei Bâlâ sancağına bağlı Kocacık bucağından gelmişti. Ali Rıza Efendi'nin doğum yeri olan Kocacık bucağı halkı da Anadolu'dan gitme ve tamamıyla Türk, Müslüman Oğuzların Türkmen boylarındandırlar."
^Dinamo, Hasan İzzettin.Kutsal İsyan: Millî Kurtuluş Savaşı'nın Gerçek Hikâyesi, 2. cilt (1986), Tekin Yayınevi.
^Şevket Süreyya Aydemir,Tek Adam: Mustafa Kemal, Birinci Cilt (1st vol.): 1881–1919, 14th ed., Remzi Kitabevi, 1997,ISBN975-14-0212-3, p. 31.(in Turkish)
^Fodor, Marcel William (1939).South of Hitler. United States, University of Wisconsin – Madison: Houghton Mifflin. p. 73.Archived from the original on 9 March 2024. Retrieved9 March 2024.His mother, Subeida, was the daughter of a small tenant of a farm in Southern Albania. According to such reliable evidence as I was able to collect, this blonde-haired, blue-eyed, robust woman was an Albanian whose mother, in turn, was a Macedonian. Mustapha Kemal with his blue eyes and blond hair resembled his...
^Atatürk, Kemal (1998).Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Akşit. p. 13.
^abcdT. C. Genelkurmay Harp Tarihi Başkanlığı Yayınları,Türk İstiklâl Harbine Katılan Tümen ve Daha Üst Kademelerdeki Komutanların Biyografileri, Ankara: Genkurmay Başkanlığı Basımevi, 1972, p. 1.(in Turkish)
^Falih Rıfkı Atay,Çankaya: Atatürk'ün doğumundan ölümüne kadar, İstanbul: Betaş, 1984, p. 29.(in Turkish)
^abFalih Rıfkı Atay: Çankaya, Pozitif Yayınları, İstanbul, 2004ISBN975-6461-05-5
^Findley, Carter V. (21 September 2010).Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: A History, 1789-2007. Yale University Press. p. 222.ISBN978-0-300-15260-9.
^"A short history of AA". Anadolu Ajansı Genel Müdürlüğü. Archived fromthe original on 9 January 2008. Retrieved1 January 2008.Ikdam newspaper dated 9 August 1921, reproducing the dispatches of AA dated 5 August and 6th, 1921, announced that Mustafa Kemal was promoted toChief Commander
^Eksi, Oktay (16 April 2008)."Paralardaki resimler".Hurriyet.Archived from the original on 21 November 2011. Retrieved24 April 2008.İsmet Paşa "kurumlaşma" ile neyi kastettiğini de şöyle anlattı: Biz Cumhuriyeti kurduğumuz zaman onu yaşatıp yaşatamayacağımız en büyük sorun idi. Çünkü Saltanatın ve Hilafetin lağvına karşı olanların sayısı çoktu ve hedefleri de Cumhuriyetti. Cumhuriyetin 10 yaşına bastığını görmek o yüzden önemliydi. Nitekim büyük Atatürk'ün emriyle 10'uncu yıl kutlamaları çok büyük bir bayram oldu. Biz de Cumhuriyetin ve devletin kurumlaştığını göstermeye bundan sonra hep itina ettik...
^"1924". Ministry of Culture And Tourism.Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved4 June 2013.
^abcdefghiWolf-Gazo,John Dewey in Turkey: An Educational Mission, 15–42.
^Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education."Atatürk's views on education". T.C. Government. Archived fromthe original on 28 October 2007. Retrieved20 November 2007.
^Touraj Atabaki, Erik Jan Zürcher, 2004, Men of Order: authoritarian modernization under Atatürk and Reza Shah, I.B. Tauris,ISBN1-86064-426-0, page 207
^Atillasoy,Atatürk : first president and founder of the Turkish Republic, 15
^Falih Rıfkı Atay (1969).Çankaya. Istanbul. p. 440
^Landau,Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey, 190
^Kayadibi, Fahri (2006). "Atatürk Döneminde Eğitim ve Bilim Alanında Gelişmeler".Istanbul University Journal of the Faculty of Theology (in Turkish) (13):1–21.
^Wiegand, Wayne A.; Davis, Donald G., eds. (1994).Encyclopedia of Library History. Routledge. p. 462.
^Özelli,The Evolution of the Formal Educational System and Its Relation to Economic Growth Policies in the First Turkish Republic, 77–92
^Landau,Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey, 191
^Kapluhan, Erol (2011),Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nde Atatürk Dönemi Eğitim Politikaları (1923–1938) ve Coğrafya Eğitimi (PhD thesis) (in Turkish),Marmara University, pp. 203–5
^Cleveland,A History of the Modern Middle East, 181
^Wilson, M. Brett (2009). "The First Translations of the Qur'an in Modern Turkey (1924–1938)".International Journal of Middle East Studies.41 (3):419–35.doi:10.1017/s0020743809091132.S2CID73683493.
^Ünal,The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English, xxxix
^Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır, (1935), "Hak dini Kur'an dili: Yeni mealli Türkçe tefsir" 9 volumes, printed in Istanbul
^Michael Radu, (2003), "Dangerous Neighborhood: Contemporary Issues in Turkey's Foreign Relations", p. 125,ISBN978-0-7658-0166-1
^Paydak, Selda (January 2000)."Interview with Semiha Berksoy". Representation of the European Commission to Turkey. Archived fromthe original on 18 April 2003. Retrieved11 February 2007.
^İnan,Medeni bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk'ün el yazıları
^"commonslibraryblog.com".commonslibraryblog.com (in Slovenian). 18 November 2013. Archived fromthe original on 23 April 2018. Retrieved23 April 2018.
^Findley, Carter Vaughn (2010).Turkey, Islam, nationalism, and modernity : a history, 1789–2007. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-15260-9.[page needed]
^Ayhan Aktar, "Cumhuriyet'in İlk Yıllarında Uygulanan 'Türkleştirme' Politikaları," in Varlık Vergisi, ve 'Türkleştirme' Politikaları, 2nd ed. (Istanbul: İletişim, 2000), 101.
^Sofos, Umut Özkırımlı & Spyros A. (2008).Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167.ISBN9780231700528.
^Sibel Bozdoǧan; Gülru Necipoğlu; Julia Bailey, eds. (2007).Muqarnas : an annual on the visual culture of the Islamic world. Leiden: Brill.ISBN9789004163201.
^abSuny, Ronald Grigor; Göçek, Fatma Müge; Naimark, Norman M., eds. (23 February 2011).A question of genocide : Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-539374-3.
^Bali, Rifat N. (1999).Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri bir türkleştirme serüveni; (1923–1945) (in Turkish) (7 ed.). İstanbul: İletişim. pp. 137–47.ISBN9789754707632.
^Vryonis, Speros (2005). The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul. New York: Greekworks.com, Inc.ISBN0-9747660-3-8.
^abİnce, Başak (15 June 2012).Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day. London: I.B. Tauris.ISBN978-1-78076-026-1.
^Aslan, Senem (29 December 2009)."Incoherent State: The Controversy over Kurdish Naming in Turkey".European Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey.10 (10).doi:10.4000/ejts.4142.the Surname Law was meant to foster a sense of Turkishness within society and prohibited surnames that were related to foreign ethnicities and nations
^Ekmekcioglu, Lerna (2010).Improvising Turkishness: Being Armenian in post-Ottoman Istanbul (1918–1933). Ann Arbor: New York University. p. 169.ISBN978-1-124-04442-2.
^abNişanyan, Sevan (2010).Adını unutan ülke: Türkiye'de adı değiştirilen yerler sözlüğü (in Turkish) (1. basım. ed.). İstanbul: Everest Yayınları.ISBN978-975-289-730-4.
^Çağatay, Soner 2002 'Kemalist dönemde göç ve iskan politikaları: Türk kimliği üzerine bir çalışma' (Policies of migration and settlement in the Kemalist era: a study on Turkish identity), Toplum ve Bilim, no. 93, pp. 218–41.
^Jongerden, Joost (2007).The settlement issue in Turkey and the Kurds : an analysis of spatial policies, modernity and war ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill.ISBN9789004155572.[page needed]
^Hamza Eroğlu."Peace at home and peace in the world" (in Turkish).Archived from the original on 30 January 2008. Retrieved1 January 2008.'Yurtta Sulh' herşeyden önce ülkede, o insanın, insanca yaşamasını, insanlık tıynetinin gereğinin tanınmasını ifade eder.
^Enver Ziya Karal.Atatürk'ten Düşünceler (in Turkish). p. 123.Haricî siyaset bir heyet-i içtimaiyenin teşekkülü dahilisi ile sıkı surette alâkadardır. Çünkü teşekkül-ü dahiliyeye istinat etmeyen haricî siyasetler daima mahkûm kalırlar. Bir heyet-i içtimaiyenin teşekkül-ü dahilisi ne kadar kuvvetli olursa, siyaset-i hariciyesi de o nisbette kavi ve rasin olur.
^abPeter Sluglett, "The Primacy of Oil in Britain's Iraq Policy", in the book "Britain in Iraq: 1914–1932" London: Ithaca Press, 1976, pp. 103–16
^Can Dündar."Atatürk yaşasaydı" (in Turkish). Archived fromthe original on 20 November 2007. Retrieved1 January 2008.... Ata'nın öncelikli dış politika sorununun Musul olduğunu söylüyor. Musul'u bırakmama konusunda aktif bir politika izlenmesinden yana olduğunu belirtiyor...
^ASD: Speeches and statements by Atatürk, volume I pages 361–63 published by Atatürk Culture, language and history Higher Institute, Ankara 1989
^Andrew Mango,Atatürk and the Kurds, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 35, No. 4, 1999, 20
^Международная жизнь (the SovietForeign Ministry's magazine). Moscow, 1963, № 11, pp. 147–48. The first publication of Atatürk's letter to Lenin in excerpts, in Russian.
^Jentleson, Bruce W.; Paterson, Thomas G. (1997).The American Journal of International Law. Oxford University Press. p. 24.ISBN978-0-19-511055-5.
^Narlı, Nilüfer (1993): "Turco-Iranian Relations from the Islamic Revolution to Gulf War and Beyond: Co-operation or Competition in the Muslim World". CEMOTI. (15): 265–95
^abcGokhan Cetinsaya "Essential friends and natural enemies: the historical roots of Turkish-Iranian relations."Middle East Review of International Affairs Vol. 7, No. 3 – September 2003
^Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 232–33.
^Aysu, Abdullah (29 January 2003)."Tütün, İçki ve Tekel" (in Turkish). BİA Haber Merkezi. Archived fromthe original on 15 October 2007. Retrieved10 October 2007.
^Cemal Kutay, "Celal Bayar", Volume I, Istanbul, 1939, p. 25; Cemal Kutay, "Celal Bayar: Bir Türk'ün Biyografisi", Istanbul, Onan Matbaası, t.y., p. 82
^Dilek Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Policy Strategies p. 61
^Webster,The Turkey of Atatürk: Social Process in the Turkish Reformation, 260
^Doğan,Formation of factory settlements within Turkish industrialization and modernization in 1930s: Nazilli printing factory
^Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism."Aydın – Historical Ruins". T.C. Government. Archived fromthe original on 7 September 2007.Nazilli cotton print factory was established over an area of 65.000 m2 on the Nazilli Bozdoğan highway. It is the "first Turkish cotton print factory" the foundation of which was laid on 25 August 1935 and which was opened by Atatürk with great ceremony.
^"Tarihte Bugün – 25 Ocak". İnönü Vakfı.Refik Saydam başbakan oldu – İstifa eden Celal Bayar'ın yerine Refik Saydam, 25 Ocak 1939'da Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin 11. hükümetini kurdu.
^Political Islam in Turkey: Running West, Heading East? G. Jenkins, Publisher Springer, 2008,ISBN0230612458, p. 84.
^Laut, J. P. (2003). Zur Sicht des Islam in der Türkischen Republik bis zum Tode Atatürks. in "Von Zentralasien bis Anatolien Philologische und religionswissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die türkische Welt Kleine Schriften von Jens Peter Laut Herausgegeben von Gökhan Shilfeler und Hans Nugteren Harrassowitz Verlag p. 387
^Laut, J. P. (2003). Zur Sicht des Islam in der Türkischen Republik bis zum Tode Atatürks. in "Von Zentralasien bis Anatolien Philologische und religionswissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die türkische Welt Kleine Schriften von Jens Peter Laut Herausgegeben von Gökhan Shilfeler und Hans Nugteren Harrassowitz Verlag p. 387.
^Laut, J. P. (2003). Zur Sicht des Islam in der Türkischen Republik bis zum Tode Atatürks. in "Von Zentralasien bis Anatolien Philologische und religionswissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die türkische Welt Kleine Schriften von Jens Peter Laut Herausgegeben von Gökhan Shilfeler und Hans Nugteren Harrassowitz Verlag p. 384
^Laut, J. P. (2003). Zur Sicht des Islam in der Türkischen Republik bis zum Tode Atatürks. in "Von Zentralasien bis Anatolien Philologische und religionswissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die türkische Welt Kleine Schriften von Jens Peter Laut Herausgegeben von Gökhan Shilfeler und Hans Nugteren Harrassowitz Verlag p. 384
^Reşat Kasaba, "Atatürk",The Cambridge history of Turkey: Volume 4: Turkey in the Modern World, Cambridge University Press, 2008;ISBN978-0-521-62096-3p. 163. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
^Phil Zuckerman, John R.Shook, The Oxford Handbook of Secularism, Oxford University Press, 2017,ISBN0199988455, p. 167.
^Laut, J. P. (2003). Zur Sicht des Islam in der Türkischen Republik bis zum Tode Atatürks. in "Von Zentralasien bis Anatolien Philologische und religionswissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die türkische Welt Kleine Schriften von Jens Peter Laut Herausgegeben von Gökhan Shilfeler und Hans Nugteren Harrassowitz Verlag p. 387
^Laut, J. P. (2003). Zur Sicht des Islam in der Türkischen Republik bis zum Tode Atatürks. in "Von Zentralasien bis Anatolien Philologische und religionswissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die türkische Welt Kleine Schriften von Jens Peter Laut Herausgegeben von Gökhan Shilfeler und Hans Nugteren Harrassowitz Verlag p. 388
^Laut, J. P. (2003). Zur Sicht des Islam in der Türkischen Republik bis zum Tode Atatürks. in "Von Zentralasien bis Anatolien Philologische und religionswissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die türkische Welt Kleine Schriften von Jens Peter Laut Herausgegeben von Gökhan Shilfeler und Hans Nugteren Harrassowitz Verlag p. 388
^Ihrig, Stefan (2014).Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 116.ISBN978-0-674-36837-8.For example, in 1938, on his birthday, in a meeting with a delegation of Turkish politicians and journalists, he reaffirmed the primal and original role Atatürk had played for him and in doing so also pinpointed what was the essence of most far-right and Nazi interpretations of Atatürk in interwar Germany: "Atatürk was the first to show that it is possible to mobilize and regenerate the resources that a country has lost. In this respect Atatürk was a teacher; Mussolini was his first and I his second student."
"Turkey had been our ally in theWorld War. Its unfortunate result was as heavy a burden for Turkey as it was for us. The great and ingenious reconstructor of the new Turkey gave his Allies, beaten by fate, the first example of resurrection. While Turkey, thanks to the realistic attitude of her State leadership, preserved her independent attitude Yugoslavia fell a victim to British intrigues."
"He is a man born out of due season, an anachronism, a throw-back to the Tartars of the Steppes, a fierce elemental force of a man. Had he been born in the centuries when all Central Asia was on the move he would have ridden out withSulyman Shah[sic] under the banner of the Grey Wolf, and with the heart and instincts of a Grey Wolf. With his military genius, and his ruthless determination unweakened by sentiments, loyalties or moralities, he might well have been aTamerlane or aJenghis Khan riding at the head of great hordes of wild horsemen, conquering countries, devouring and destroying cities, and filling in the intervals of peace between campaigns with wild and hideous orgies of wine and women."
^Huda Shaarawi's Diaries – Book of Al-Hilal, September 1981:
"After the Istanbul conference ended, we received an invitation to attend the celebration held by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the liberator of modern Turkey ... and I said: If the Turks considered you the worthiness of their father and they called you Atatürk, I say that this is not enough, but you are for us "Atasharq" [Father of the East]. Its meaning did not come from any female head of delegation, and thanked me very much for the great influence, and then I begged him to present us with a picture of his Excellency for publication in the journalL'Égyptienne."
Kévorkian, Raymond (2020). "The Final Phase: The Cleansing of Armenian and Greek Survivors, 1919–1922".Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State. Berghahn Books. pp. 147–173.ISBN978-1-78920-451-3.
Barlas, Dilek (1998).Statism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Policy Strategies in an Uncertain World, 1929–1939. New York: Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-90-04-10855-4.
Crease, Robert P. (2019). "Kemal Atatürk: Science and Patriotism".The workshop and the world: what ten thinkers can teach us about science and authority. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., Inc. pp. 189–204.ISBN978-0-393-29243-5.OCLC1037807472.
Doğan, Çağatay Emre (2003).Formation of Factory Settlements Within Turkish Industrialization and Modernization in 1930s: Nazilli Printing Factory (in Turkish). Ankara: Middle East Technical University.OCLC54431696.
Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2011).Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography. New Jersey and Woodstock (Oxfordshire): Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-15109-0.
İğdemir, Uluğ; Mango, Andrew (translation) (1963).Atatürk. Ankara: Turkish National Commission for UNESCO. pp. 165–170.OCLC75604149.
İnan, Ayşe Afet (2007).Atatürk Hakkında Hatıralar ve Belgeler (in Turkish). Istanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.ISBN978-9944-88-140-1.
İnan, Ayşe Afet; Sevim, Ali; Süslü, Azmi; Tural, M Akif (1998).Medeni bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk'ün el Yazıları (in Turkish). Ankara: AKDTYK Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi.ISBN978-975-16-1276-2.
Saikal, Amin; Schnabel, Albrecht (2003).Democratization in the Middle East: Experiences, Struggles, Challenges. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.ISBN978-92-808-1085-1.
Spangnolo, John (1992).The Modern Middle East in Historical Perspective: Essays in Honour of Albert Hourani. Oxford: Middle East Centre, St. Antony's College.ISBN978-0-86372-164-9.OCLC80503960.
Tunçay, Mete (1972).Mesaî : Halk Şûrâlar Fırkası Programı, 1920 (in Turkish). Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi.OCLC1926301.
Tüfekçi, Gürbüz D (1981).Universality of Atatürk's Philosophy. Ankara: Pan Matbaacılık.OCLC54074541.
Özelli, M. Tunç (January 1974). "The Evolution of the Formal Educational System and its Relation to Economic Growth Policies in the First Turkish Republic".International Journal of Middle East Studies.5 (1):77–92.doi:10.1017/s0020743800032803.ISSN0020-7438.JSTOR162345.S2CID154739517.
Volkan, Vamık D. (1981). "Immortal Atatürk – Narcissism and Creativity in a Revolutionary Leader".Psychoanalytic Study of Society.9:221–255.ISSN0079-7294.OCLC60448681.
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