Before 1603 it was customary for an Ottoman Sultan to have his brothers executed shortly after ascending the throne, (Mustafa's fatherMehmed III had executed his nineteen half-brothers). But when the thirteen-year-oldAhmed I, Mustafa's older half-brother, was enthroned in 1603, he spared the life of Mustafa.[5]Handan Sultan, mother of Ahmed I, was crucial to Mustafa's survival, as she convinced her son to spare his life.[6][7][8]
A factor in Mustafa's survival is the influence ofKösem Sultan (Ahmed's favorite consort), who may have wished to preempt the succession of SultanOsman II, Ahmed's first-born son from another concubine. If Osman became Sultan, he would likely try to execute his half-brothers, the sons of Ahmed and Kösem. (This scenario later became a reality whenOsman II executed his half-brotherMehmed, the oldest son of Ahmed and Kösem, in 1621.[9]) Furthermore, when Ahmed ascended the throne, Mustafa was the only possible heir. Had Ahmed executed him and then died sonless, the dynasty would have died out.[10][11] However, the reports of foreign ambassadors suggest that Ahmed actually liked his half-brother: he had been on good terms with his older half-brotherŞehzade Mahmud (full brother of Mustafa, executed by his father Mehmed III and his grandmotherSafiye Sultan) and was shocked by his death, and also felt sympathy for Mustafa's very young age.[12]
Mustafa lived at first in the Old Palace, along with his mother, and grandmotherSafiye Sultan and later in theKafes until Ahmed's death in 1617.[13]
Ahmed's death created a dilemma never before experienced by the Ottoman Empire. Multiple princes were now eligible for the Sultanate, and all of them lived in Topkapı Palace.[9] A court faction headed by theŞeyhülislam Esad Efendi and Sofu Mehmed Pasha (who represented theGrand Vizier when he was away fromConstantinople) decided to enthrone Mustafa instead of Ahmed's son Osman. Sofu Mehmed argued that Osman was too young to be enthroned without causing adverse comment among the populace. TheChief Black Eunuch Mustafa Agha objected, citing Mustafa's mental problems, but he was overruled.[14] Mustafa's rise created a new succession principle of seniority that would last until the end of the Empire. It was the first time an Ottoman Sultan was succeeded by his brother instead of his son. His motherHalime Sultan became theValide sultan, as well as regent, and wielded great power. Due to Mustafa's mental conditions, she acted as regent and exercised power more directly.
It was hoped that regular social contact would improve Mustafa's mental health, but his behavior remained eccentric. He pulled off the turbans of his viziers and yanked their beards. Others observed him throwing coins to birds and fish. The Ottoman historianİbrahim Peçevi wrote "this situation was seen by all men of state and the people, and they understood that he was mentally disturbed."[15]
Mustafa was never more than a tool of court cliques at theTopkapı Palace.[16] In 1618, after a short rule, another palace faction deposed him in favour of his young nephewOsman II (1618–1622), and Mustafa was sent back to the Old Palace. The conflict between theJanissaries and Osman II presented him with a second chance. After a Janissary rebellion led to the deposition and assassination of Osman II in 1622, Mustafa was restored to the throne and held it for another year.[17]
Nevertheless, according to Baki Tezcan, there is not enough evidence to properly establish that Mustafa was mentally imbalanced when he came to the throne. Mustafa "made a number of excursions to the arsenal and the navy docks, examining various sorts of arms and taking an active interest in the munitions supply of the army and the navy." One of the dispatches of Baron de Sancy, the French ambassador, "suggested that Mustafa was interested in leading theSafavid campaign himself and was entertaining the idea of wintering in Konya for that purpose."[18]
Moreover, one contemporary observer provides an explanation of the coup which does not mention the incapacity of Mustafa. Baron de Sancy ascribes the deposition as a political conspiracy between the grand admiral Ali Pasha andChief Black Eunuch Mustafa Agha, who were angered by the former's removal from office upon Sultan Mustafa's accession. They may have circulated rumors of the sultan's mental instability subsequent to the coup in order to legitimize it.[19]
Mustafa commenced his second reign by executing all those who had taken any part in the murder of Sultan Osman. Hoca Ömer Efendi, the chief of the rebels, the kızlar Agha Suleiman Agha, the vizier Dilaver Pasha, the Kaim-makam Ahmed Pasha, the defterdar Baki Pasha, the segban-bashi Nasuh Agha, and the general of the Janissaries Ali Agha, were executed.[20][non-primary source needed]
The epithet "Veli" (meaning "saint") was used in reference to him during his reign.[21]
His mental condition unimproved, Mustafa was a puppet controlled by his mother and brother-in-law, the grand vizierKara Davud Pasha. He believed that Osman II was still alive and was seen searching for him throughout the palace, knocking on doors and crying out to his nephew to relieve him from the burden of sovereignty.[22] "The present emperor being a fool" (according to English AmbassadorSir Thomas Roe), he was compared unfavorably with his predecessor.[15] In fact, it was his motherHalime Sultan the de facto-co-ruler as Valide Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Political instability was generated by conflict between the Janissaries and thesipahis (Ottoman cavalry), followed by theAbaza rebellion, which occurred when the governor-general ofErzurum,Abaza Mehmed Pasha, decided to march on Istanbul to avenge the murder of Osman II. The regime tried to end the conflict by executing Kara Davud Pasha, but Abaza Mehmed continued his advance. Clerics andKemankeş Kara Ali Pasha prevailed upon Mustafa's mother to allow the deposition of her son. She agreed, on the condition that Mustafa's life would be spared.[9][23]
The 11-year-oldMurad IV, son of Ahmed I and Kösem, was enthroned on 10 September 1623. In return for her consent to his deposition, the request of Mustafa's mother that he be spared execution was granted.[10] Mustafa was sent in the Kafes for the rest of his life, while his mother was sent to theOld Palace, where she died.[24]
Mustafa died in the Kafes on 20 January 1639.[19][4][11] One source states that he died of epilepsy which was caused by being imprisoned for majority of his life. Another source states that he was executed by the orders of SultanMurad IV, who was on his death bed, and rumors say that he wanted to end the lineage. He is buried in the courtyard of theHaghia Sophia.[25]
^Börekçi, Günhan (2010).Factions and favorites at the courts of sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603—17) and his immidiate predessors. Ohio State University Press. p. 64.
^Baki Tezcan (2010).The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 109.ISBN978-0-521-51949-6.
^abBaki Tezcan (2010).The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 110–2.ISBN978-0-521-51949-6.
^Evliya Çelebi, Joseph Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall (1834).Narrative of Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Seventeenth Century, Volume 1. Oriental Translation Fund. p. 115.
^Baki Tezcan (2010).The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 75.ISBN978-0-521-51949-6.
^Şefika Şule Erçetin (28 November 2016).Women Leaders in Chaotic Environments:Examinations of Leadership Using Complexity Theory. Springer. p. 80.ISBN978-3-319-44758-2.
^Naima, Mustafa (1968).Naîmâ târihi, Volume 3. Z. Danışman Yayınevi. p. 1459.
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