The psychology of music can shed light on non-psychological aspects ofmusicology and musical practice. For example, it contributes tomusic theory through investigations of theperception andcomputational modelling of musical structures such asmelody,harmony,tonality,rhythm,meter, andform. Research inmusic history can benefit from systematic study of the history ofmusical syntax, or from psychological analyses of composers and compositions in relation to perceptual, affective, and social responses to their music.[4]
The study of sound and musical phenomena prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the mathematical modelling ofpitch andtone.[5] The earliest recorded experiments date from the 6th century BCE, most notably in the work ofPythagoras and his establishment of the simple string length ratios that formed theconsonances of theoctave. This view that sound and music could be understood from a purely physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists asAnaxagoras andBoethius. An important early dissenter wasAristoxenus, who foreshadowed the modern psychology of music in his view that music could only be understood through human perception and its relation to human memory. Despite his views, the majority of musical education through theMiddle Ages andRenaissance remained rooted in the Pythagorean tradition, particularly through thequadrivium ofastronomy,geometry,arithmetic, andmusic.[5]
Research byVincenzo Galilei (father ofGalileo) demonstrated that, when string length was held constant, varying its tension, thickness, or composition could alter perceived pitch. From this, he argued that simple ratios were not enough to account for musical phenomenon and that a perceptual approach was necessary. He also claimed that the differences between various tuning systems were not perceivable, thus the disputes were unnecessary. Study of topics includingvibration,consonance, theharmonic series, andresonance were furthered through theScientific Revolution, including work byGalileo,Kepler,Mersenne, andDescartes. This included further speculation concerning the nature of the sense organs and higher-order processes, particularly bySavart,Helmholtz, andKoenig.[5]
A brass, spherical Helmholtz resonator based on his original design, circa 1890–1900
The latter 19th century saw the development of the psychology of music alongside the emergence of ageneral empirical psychology, one which passed through similar stages of development. The first wasstructuralist psychology, led byWilhelm Wundt, which sought to break down experience into its smallest definable parts. This expanded upon previous centuries of acoustic study, and included Helmholtz developing theresonator to isolate and understand pure and complex tones and their perception, the philosopherCarl Stumpf using church organs and his own musical experience to exploretimbre andabsolute pitch, and Wundt himself associating the experience of rhythm with kinesthetic tension and relaxation.[5]
As structuralism gave way toGestalt psychology andbehaviorism at the turn of the century, the psychology of music moved beyond the study of isolated tones and elements to the perception of their inter-relationships and human reactions to them, though work languished behind that ofvisual perception.[5] In Europe Géza Révész and Albert Wellek developed a more complex understanding of musical pitch, and in the US the focus shifted to that of music education and the training and development of musical skill.Carl Seashore led this work, producing hisThe Measurement of Musical Talents andThe Psychology of Musical Talent. Seashore used bespoke equipment and standardized tests to measure how performance deviated from indicated markings and how musical aptitude differed between students.
Europeanmusicology was found in Greek. They were focused on the philosophy, and the concepts of any relations with music. Greek's several theories rose later to Arab and the Christians theories. Although their theories survived, they were also corrupted along the way, in the Middle Ages of Europe.[6]
The psychology of music in the second half of the 20th century has expanded to cover a wide array of theoretical and applied areas. From the 1960s the field grew along withcognitive science, including such research areas as music perception (particularly of pitch, rhythm, harmony, and melody), musical development and aptitude, music performance, andaffective responses to music.[5]
This period has also seen the founding of journals, societies, conferences, research groups, centers, and degrees that each are specific to the psychology of music. This trend has brought research toward specific applications formusic education, performance, andtherapy.[7] While the techniques ofcognitive psychology allowed for more objective examinations of musical behavior and experience, the theoretical and technological advancements ofneuroscience have greatly shaped the direction of the field into the 21st century.[8]
While the majority of research in the psychology of music has focused on music in a Western context, the field has expanded along withethnomusicology to examine how the perception and practice of music differs between cultures.[9][10] It has also emerged into the public sphere. In recent years several bestsellingpopular science books have helped bring the field into public discussion, notablyDaniel Levitin'sThis Is Your Brain On Music (2006) andThe World in Six Songs (2008),Oliver Sacks'Musicophilia (2007), andGary Marcus'Guitar Zero (2012). In addition, the controversial "Mozart effect" sparked lengthy debate among researchers, educators, politicians, and the public regarding the relationship betweenclassical music listening, education, andintelligence.[11]
Music has been shown to consistently elicit emotional responses in its listeners, and this relationship between humanaffect andmusic has been studied in depth.[5] This includes isolating which specific features of a musical work or performance convey or elicit certain reactions, the nature of the reactions themselves, and how characteristics of the listener may determine whichemotions are felt. The field draws upon and has significant implications for such areas asphilosophy,musicology, andaesthetics, as well the acts ofmusical composition andperformance. The implications for casual listeners are also great; research has shown that the pleasurable feelings associated with emotional music are the result ofdopamine release in thestriatum—the same anatomical areas that underpin the anticipatory and rewarding aspects of drugaddiction.[14]According to research, listening to music has been found to affect the mood of an individual. The main factors in whether it will affect that individual positively or negatively are based on the musics tempo and style. In addition, listening to music also increases cognitive functions, creativity, and decreases feelings of fatigue. All of these factors lead to better workflow and a more optimal result in the activity done while listening to music. This leads to the conclusion that listening to music while performing an activity is an excellent way of increasing productivity and the overall experience.[15] It has been proposed that the ability to understand the emotional meaning of music might rely on the existence of a common neural system for processing the affective meaning of voices/vocalizations and musical sounds.[16][17] In addition to emotional responses, music has influenced the lifestyles of individuals and changed people's perceptions of what "sexy" is. Although music cannot resolve all human beings needs, it is heavily relied on to alter the feelings and emotions.
A significant amount of research concerns brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music perception and performance. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. Scientists working in this field may have training in cognitive neuroscience, neurology, neuroanatomy, psychology, music theory, computer science, and other allied fields, and use such techniques asfunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS),magnetoencephalography (MEG),electroencephalography (EEG), andpositron emission tomography (PET).
Thecognitive process of performing music requires the interaction of neural mechanisms in both motor and auditory systems. Since every action expressed in a performance produces a sound that influences subsequent expression, this leads to impressivesensorimotor interplay.[18]
Theprimary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.
Perceived pitch typically depends on thefundamental frequency, though the dependence could be mediated solely by the presence ofharmonics corresponding to that fundamental frequency. The perception of a pitch without the corresponding fundamental frequency in the physical stimulus is called the pitch of themissing fundamental.[19] Neurons lateral to A1 in marmoset monkeys were found to be sensitive specifically to the fundamental frequency of a complex tone,[20] suggesting thatpitch constancy may be enabled by such a neural mechanism.
Pitch constancy refers to the ability to perceive pitch identity across changes in acoustical properties, such as loudness, temporal envelope, ortimbre.[19] The importance of cortical regions lateral to A1 for pitch coding is also supported by studies of human cortical lesions and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of the brain.[21][22][23] These data suggest a hierarchical system for pitch processing, with more abstract properties of sound stimulus processed further along the processing pathways.
Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch.[24] Researchers estimate the occurrence of AP to be 1 in 10,000 people.[25] The extent to which this ability is innate or learned is debated, with evidence for both agenetic basis and for a "critical period" in which the ability can be learned, especially in conjunction with early musical training.[26][27]
Behavioural studies demonstrate that rhythm and pitch can be perceived separately,[28] but that they also interact[29][30][31] in creating a musical perception. Studies of auditory rhythm discrimination and reproduction in patients with brain injury have linked these functions to theauditory regions of thetemporal lobe, but have shown no consistent localization or lateralization.[32][33][34] Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies have shown that the motor regions of the brain contribute to both perception and production of rhythms.[35]
Dynamics in music refers to the volume of the music, or how loud the music is. 25% of American adults have some form of hearing loss from exposure to loud noise excessively. Loud volume can cause hearing loss that can occur with one singular loud noise, or consistently listening to loud noises. High sound levels can damage the hairs in the inner ear that receive sound, which can cause permanent hearing loss.[38]
Music at a lower volume can reduce anxiety and blood pressure while improving mood, alertness, and memory. Listening to music at a moderate volume can maximize the benefits of listening to music. This happens because you receive all of the positive benefits of listening to music, without the risk of permanently damaging the delicate aspects of the ear.[39]
Although auditory–motor interactions can be observed in people without formal musical training, musicians are an excellent population to study because of their long-established and rich associations between auditory and motor systems. Musicians have been shown to have anatomical adaptations that correlate with their training.[19] Some neuroimaging studies have observed that musicians show lower levels of activity in motor regions than non-musicians during the performance of simple motor tasks, which may suggest a more efficient pattern of neural recruitment.[40][41][42][43] Other studies have shown that early musical training may positively affect word reading, by promoting the specialization of an extra right-sided "note visual area" to process spatially relevant visual information (i.e., pentagram, bars, etc.)[44] This neuroplastic effect might help prevent surface dyslexia. Music learning also involves the formation of novel audio visuomotor associations, which results in the ability to detect an incorrect association between sounds and the corresponding musical gestures,[45][46] also allowing to learn how to play a musical instrument.[47]
Previous neuroimaging studies have consistently reported activity in the SMA and premotor areas, as well as in auditory cortices, when non-musicians imagine hearing musical excerpts.[19] Recruitment of the SMA and premotor areas is also reported when musicians are asked to imagine performing.[43][48]
This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs.[52] This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.[53]
Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origin of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human evolution".[54] It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context ofevolutionary theory.Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as aprotolanguage,[55] a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.[56][57][58] An alternate view sees music as a by-product oflinguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function.[59] This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.[60][61][62]
An individual'sculture orethnicity plays a role in theirmusic cognition, including theirpreferences,emotional reaction, andmusical memory. Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.[63][64][65][66][67] Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.[68][69]
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Some areas of research in the psychology of music focus on the application of music in everyday life as well as the practices and experiences of the amateur and professional musician. Each topic may utilize knowledge and techniques derived from one or more of the areas described above. Such areas include:
Consumers' choices in music have been studied as they relate to theBig Five personality traits:openness to experience,agreeableness,extraversion,neuroticism, andconscientiousness. In general, the plasticity traits (openness to experience and extraversion) affect music preference more than the stability traits (agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness).[70] Gender has been shown to influence preference, with men choosing music for primarily cognitive reasons and women for emotional reasons.[71] Relationships with music preference have also been found with mood[72] and nostalgic association.[73]
The study ofbackground music focuses on the impact of music with non-musical tasks, including changes in behavior in the presence of different types, settings, or styles of music.[74] In laboratory settings, music can affect performance on cognitive tasks (memory,attention, andcomprehension), both positively and negatively. Used extensively as anadvertising aid, music may also affectmarketing strategies, ad comprehension, and consumer choices. Background music can influence learning,[75][76]working memory andrecall,[77][78] performance while working on tests,[79][80] and attention in cognitive monitoring tasks.[81][82] Background music can also be used as a way to relieve boredom, create positive moods, and maintain a private space.[83] Background music has been shown to put a restless mind at ease by presenting the listener with various melodies and tones.[83] It has been shown that listening to different types of music may modulate differently psychological mood and physiological responses associated with the induced emotions.[84] For example, listening to atonal music might result in reduced heart rate (fear bradycardia) and increased blood pressure (both diastolic and systolic), possibly reflecting an increase in alertness and attention, psychological tension, and anxiety.[85]
In both radio and television advertisements, music plays an integral role in content recall,[86][87][88] intentions to buy the product, and attitudes toward the advertisement and brand itself.[89][90][91] Music's effect on marketing has been studied in radio ads,[88][90][91] TV ads,[86][87][89] and physical retail settings.[92][93]
One of the most important aspects of an advertisement's music is the "musical fit", or the degree of congruity between cues in the ad and song content.[94] Advertisements and music can be congruous or incongruous for both lyrical and instrumental music. The timbre, tempo, lyrics, genre, mood, as well as any positive or negative associations elicited by certain music shouldfit the nature of the advertisement and product.[94]
Several studies have recognized that listening to music while working affects theproductivity of people performing complex cognitive tasks.[95] One study suggested that listening to one's preferred genre of music can enhance productivity in the workplace,[96] though other research has found that listening to music while working can be a source ofdistraction, with loudness and lyrical content possibly playing a role.[97] Other factors proposed to affect the relationship between music listening and productivity include musical structure, task complexity, and degree of control over the choice and use of music.[98]
Musical aptitude refers to a person's innate ability to acquire skills and knowledge required for musical activity, and may influence the speed at which learning can take place and the level that may be achieved. Study in this area focuses on whether aptitude can be broken into subsets or represented as a single construct, whether aptitude can be measured prior to significant achievement, whether high aptitude can predict achievement, to what extent aptitude is inherited, and what implications questions of aptitude have on educational principles.[5]
It is an issue closely related to that ofintelligence andIQ, and was pioneered by the work ofCarl Seashore. While early tests of aptitude, such as Seashore'sThe Measurement of Musical Talent, sought to measure innate musical talent through discrimination tests of pitch, interval, rhythm, consonance, memory, etc., later research found these approaches to have little predictive power and to be influenced greatly by the test-taker's mood, motivation, confidence, fatigue, and boredom when taking the test.[5]
music performance quality evaluation by anaudience orevaluator(s) (e.g.audition orcompetition), including the influence of musical and non-musical factors
Scientific studies suggest that singing can have positive effects on people's health. A preliminary study based on self-reported data from a survey of students participating in choral singing found perceived benefits including increased lung capacity, improved mood, stress reduction, as well as perceived social and spiritual benefits.[100] However, one much older study of lung capacity compared those with professional vocal training to those without, and failed to back up the claims of increased lung capacity.[101] Singing may positively influence theimmune system through the reduction ofstress. One study found that both singing and listening to choral music reduces the level of stress hormones and increases immune function.[102]
A multinational collaboration to study the connection between singing and health was established in 2009, calledAdvancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing (AIRS).[103] Singing provides physical, cognitive, and emotional benefits to participants. When they step on stage, many singers forget their worries and focus solely on the song. Singing is becoming a more widely known method of increasing an individual's overall health and wellness, in turn helping them to battle diseases such as cancer more effectively due to decreased stress, releasing of endorphins, and increased lung capacity.[104]
John Daniel Scott, among others, have cited that "people who sing are more likely to be happy". This is because "singing elevates the levels of neurotransmitters which are associated with pleasure and well being". Humans have a long prehistory of music, especially singing; it is speculated that music was even used as an early form of social bonding.[105] As stated by Savage et al. (2020), Songs were also used to identify a socio-cultural connection between individuals, as songs typically vary. If two people knew the same song, they likely had a connection from previous generations (7), because song is often more memorable. Savage et al. continues by presenting evidence that music or singing may have evolved in humans even before language. Furthermore, Levitin, in hisThis is Your Brain on Music, argues that "music may be the activity that prepared our pre-human ancestors for speech communication" and that "singing ... might have helped our species to refine motor skills, paving the way for the development of the exquisitely fine muscle control required for vocal ... speech" (260).[106] On the other hand, he cites Pinker, who "argued that language is an adaptation and music is itsSpandrel ... an evolutionary accident piggybacking on language" (248).[106]
Studies have found evidence suggesting the mental, as well as physical, benefits of singing. When conducting a study with 21 members of a choir at three different points over one year, three themes suggested three areas of benefits; the social impact (connectedness with others), personal impact (positive emotions, self-perception, etc.), and functional outcomes (health benefits of being in the choir). Findings showed that a sense of well-being is associated with singing, by uplifting the mood of the participants and releasing endorphins in the brain. Many singers also reported that singing helped them regulate stress and relax, allowing them to deal better with their daily lives. From a social perspective, approval from the audience, and interaction with other choir members in a positive manner is also beneficial.
Singing is beneficial for pregnant mothers. By giving them another medium of communication with their newborns, mothers in one study reported feelings of love and affection when singing to their unborn children. They also reported feeling more relaxed than ever before during their stressful pregnancy. A song can have nostalgic significance by reminding a singer of the past, and momentarily transport them, allowing them to focus on singing and embrace the activity as an escape from their daily lives and problems.[107]
A recent study byTenovus Cancer Care found that singing in a choir for just one hour boosts levels of immune proteins in cancer patients and has a positive overall effect on the health of patients. The study explores the possibility that singing could help put patients in the best mental and physical shape to receive the treatment they need, by reducing stress hormones, and increasing quantities of cytokines—proteins of the immune system that can increase the body's ability to fight disease. "Singing gives you physical benefits like breath control and muscle movement and enunciation, as well as the learning benefits of processing information" says a musical director and accompanist in the study. The enunciation and speech benefits tie into the language benefits detailed below.[108]
Some have advocated, as in a 2011 article in theToronto Star, that everyone sing, even if they are not musically talented, because of its health benefits. Singing lowers blood pressure by releasing pent up emotions, boosting relaxation, and reminding them of happy times. It also allows singers to breathe more easily. Patients with lung disease and chronic pulmonary disease experience relief from their symptoms from singing just two times a week. In addition to breathing related illness, singing also has numerous benefits for stroke victims when it comes to relearning the ability to speak and communicate by singing their thoughts. Singing activates the right side of the brain when the left side cannot function (the left side is the area of the brain responsible for speech), so it is easy to see how singing can be an excellent alternative to speech while the victim heals.[109]
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