Music was almost universally present inancient Greek society, from marriages, funerals, andreligious ceremonies totheatre, folk music, and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. This played an integral role in the lives of ancientGreeks. There are some fragments of actual Greekmusical notation,[1][2] many literary references,depictions onceramics and relevantarchaeological remains, such that some things can be known—or reasonably surmised—about what the music sounded like, the general role of music in society, the economics of music, the importance of a professional caste of musicians, etc.
The wordmusic comes from theMuses, the daughters ofZeus and patron goddesses of creative and intellectual endeavours.
Concerning the origin of music and musical instruments: the history of music in ancient Greece is so closely interwoven with Greek mythology and legend that it is often difficult to surmise what is historically true and what is myth. The music and music theory of ancient Greece laid the foundation for western music and western music theory, as it would go on to influence the ancient Romans, the early Christian church and the medieval composers.[3]: x Our understanding of ancient Greek music theory, musical systems, and musical ethos comes almost entirely from the surviving teachings of thePythagoreans,Plato,Aristoxenus,Philodemus,Ptolemy, andAristides.
Some ancient Greek philosophers discussed the study of music in ancient Greece.Pythagoras in particular believed that music was subject to the same mathematical laws of harmony as the mechanics of the cosmos, evolving into an idea known as themusic of the spheres.[3]: 130–131 The Pythagoreans focused on the mathematics and the acoustical science of sound and music. They developed tuning systems and harmonic principles that focused on simple integers and ratios, laying a foundation for acoustic science.[3]: 132 It can be demonstrated that all surviving music written in ancient instrumental notation can be played with pure intervals of this type.[4] Aristoxenus, who wrote a number of musicological treatises, was one of multiple theorists who studied music connecting theory and empiricism. Aristoxenus believed that intervals should be both judged by ear and described with mathematical ratios;[5] he was influenced by Pythagoras and used mathematics terminology and measurements in his research. However, playful engagement with musical intervals is documented in music written in vocal notation, which goes beyond the limitations of harmonics.[6]
Music played an integral role in ancient Greek society. Pericles' teacher Damon said, according to Plato in theRepublic, "when fundamental modes of music change, the fundamental modes of the state change with them." Music andgymnastics comprised the main divisions in one's schooling. "The word 'music' expressed the entire education".[7]
Instrumental music served a religious and entertaining role in ancient Greece as it would often accompany religious events, rituals, and festivals. Music was also used for entertainment when it accompanied drinking-parties orsymposia. A popular type of piece to be played while drinking at these drinking parties was theskolion, a piece composed to be heard while drinking.[8] Before and after the Greek drinking parties, religiouslibations, or the religious act of partaking and pouring out drink, would be made to deities, usually theOlympic gods, the heroes, andZeus. The offering of libations were often accompanied by a special libation melody called thespondeion, which was often accompanied by anaulos player.[3]: 8
Music occupied an important role in the Greek sacrificial ceremonies. The sarcophagus of Hagia Triada shows that the aulos was present during sacrifices as early as 1300 BC.[9]: 2 Music was also present during times of initiation, worship, and religious celebration, playing very integral parts of the sacrificial cults ofApollo andDionysus.[9]: 3
Music (along with intoxication of potions, fasting, and honey) was also integral in preparing for and catalyzing divination, as music would often induce prophets into religious ecstasy and revelation, so much so that the expression for "making music" and "prophesying" were identical in ancient Greek.[9]: 39
Instruments were also present in war time, though it may not have been considered music entirely. Specific notes of the trumpet were played to dictate commands to soldiers on the battlefield. The aulos and percussion instruments also accompanied the verbal commands given to oarsmen by the boatswain. The instruments were used mainly to help keep the oarsmen in time with one another.[3]: 8
Ahymn is a metric composition whose text addresses a god, either directly or indirectly. They are the earliest formal type in Greek music, and survive in relatively large numbers.[10]: 29–30
Paean
Paeans were most commonly sung in honor or worship ofApollo as well asAthena. They usually solemnly expressed the hope for deliverance from a peril, or were sung in thanksgiving after a victory or escape.[3]: 3
Prosodion
A type of hymn or processional that invoked or praised a god.Prosodions were usually sung on the road to an altar or shrine, before or after a paean.[3]: 3
Hyporchema
Hyporchema was a dance-song with a marked rhythmic movement, commonly associated with the paean, and often difficult to distinguish from it. For example, theFirst Delphic Hymn is titled "Paean or Hyporchema".[10]: 88
Dithyrambs
Usually merrily sung in celebration at festivals, performed especially in dedication toDionysus, the god of wine.Dithyrambs featured choirs (choros) of men and boys who were accompanied by anaulos player.[3]: 4
Whether or not long narrative poetry, or epic poetry like those ofHomer, was sung is not entirely known. As in Plato's dialogueIon,Socrates uses both the words "sing" and "speak" in connection with the Homeric epics,[11][page needed] however there are heavy implications that they have been at least recited unaccompanied by instruments, in a sing-song chant.[3]: 10
Music was also present in ancient Greeklyric poetry, which by definition is poetry or a song accompanied by alyre. Lyric poetry eventually branched into two paths, monodic lyric which were performed by a singular person, and choral lyric which were sung and sometimes danced by a group of peoplechoros. Famous lyric poets include Alkaios andSappho from the Island ofLesbos, Sappho being one of the few women whose poetry has been preserved.[3]: 11
Music was also heavily prevalent in ancient Greek Drama. In hisPoetics,Aristotle links the origins oftragic drama to dithyrambs.[12] The leaders of dithyrambs were the ones who led the song and dance moves, which would then be responded to by the group. Aristotle implies that this relationship between a single person and a group began the tragic drama, which in its earliest stages had a single actor who played all the parts through either song or speech. The single actor engaged in dialogue with thechoros. Thechoros narrated most of the story through song and dance. In ancient Greece, the playwright was expected to not only write the script but also expected to compose the music and dance moves.[3]: 13–14
A 17th-century representation of the Greek musesClio,Thalia, andEuterpe playing a transverse flute, presumably the Greekphotinx.
The ancient Greek myths were never codified or documented into one form; what exists are several different versions from several different authors, across multiple centuries, which can lead to variations and even contradictions among authors and even the same author. According toGreek mythology, music, instruments, and the aural arts are attributed to divine origin, and the art of music was gift of the gods to men.[3]: 149
AlthoughApollo was prominently considered the god of music and harmony, several legendary gods and demigods were purported to have created some aspect of music as well as contributed to its development. Some gods, and especially theMuses, represented specific aspects or elements of music. The 'inventions' or 'findings' of all ancient Greek instruments were accredited to the gods as well. The performance of music was integrated into many different modes of Greek story-telling and art related to mythology, including drama, and poetry, and there are a large number of ancient Greek myths related to music and musicians.[3]: 148
In Greek mythology:Amphion learned music fromHermes and then with a golden lyre built Thebes by moving the stones into place with the sound of his playing;Orpheus, the master-musician and lyre-player, played so magically that he could soothe wild beasts; the Orphiccreation myths haveRhea "playing on a brazen drum, and compelling man's attention to the oracles of the goddess";[13]: 30 or Hermes [showing to Apollo] "... his newly-invented tortoise-shell lyre and [playing] such a ravishing tune on it with theplectrum he had also invented, at the same time singing to praise Apollo's nobility[13]: 64 that he was forgiven at once ..."; or Apollo's musical victories overMarsyas andPan.[13]: 77
There are many such references that indicate that music was an integral part of the Greek perception of how their race had even come into existence and how their destinies continued to be watched over and controlled by the Gods. It is no wonder, then, that music was omnipresent at thePythian Games, theOlympic Games, religious ceremonies, leisure activities, and even the beginnings of drama as an outgrowth of thedithyrambs performed in honor ofDionysus.[14]
It may be that the actual sounds of the music heard at rituals, games, dramas, etc. underwent a change after the traumatic fall of Athens in 404 BC at the end of the firstPeloponnesian War. Indeed, one reads of the "revolution" in Greek culture, andPlato's lament that the new music "... used high musical talent, showmanship and virtuosity ... consciously rejecting educated standards of judgement."[15] Although instrumental virtuosity was prized, this complaint included excessive attention to instrumental music such as to interfere with accompanying the human voice, and the falling away from the traditionalethos in music.
According to theHomeric Hymn to Hermes, after stealing his brother Apollo's sacred cattle,Hermes was inspired to build an instrument out of a tortoise shell; he attached horns, and gut-string, to the shell and invented the firstlyre. Afterwards, Hermes gave his lyre to Apollo, who took interest in the instrument, in repayment for the stolen cattle. In other accounts, Hermes gave his newly invented lyre toAmphion, a son ofZeus and a skilled musician.[16]
Aulos
According toPindar'sTwelfth Pythian Ode, afterPerseus beheadedMedusa,Athena 'found' or 'invented' theaulos in order to reproduce the lamentation of Medusa's sisters. Since the same Greek word is used for 'find' and 'invent', it is unclear; however, the writer Telestes in the 5th century states that Athena found the instrument in a thicket. InPlutarch's essayOn the Restraint of Anger, he writes that Athena, after seeing her reflection while playing the aulos, threw the instrument away because it distorted her facial features when played, after whichMarsyas asatyr, picked up her aulos and took it up as his own.[17]
According toOvid'sMetamorpheses, the originalSyrinx was aNaiad, a water nymph, who ran away from Pan after he tried to woo her. While she fled, she came upon an uncrossable river and prayed to her sisters to transform her so that she may escape Pan. Her Nymph sisters transformed Syrinx into a bundle of reeds which Pan found and fashioned an instrument out of, thePan flute or syrinx.[18]
Orpheus is a significant figure in the ancient Greek mythology of music. Orpheus was a legendary poet and musician, his lineage is unclear as some sources note him as the son of Apollo, the son of the MuseCalliope, or the son of mortal parents. Orpheus was the pupil and brother of Linus. Linus by some accounts is the son of Apollo and the MuseUrania; Linus was the first to be gifted the ability to sing by the Muses, which he passed to Orpheus. Other accounts state that Apollo gave Orpheus a golden lyre and taught him to play, while the muses taught Orpheus to sing.
Orpheus was said to be such a skilled musician that he could charm inanimate objects.[3]: 151 According to theArgonautica, Orpheus in his adventures withJason and theArgonauts, was able to play music more beautiful and louder than the bewitching sirens, allowing the Argonauts to travel safely without being charmed by the sirens.[19] When Orpheus' wife,Eurydice, died, he played a song so mournful that it caused the gods and all the nymphs to weep. Orpheus was then able to travel to the underworld, and with music, softened the heart ofHades enough that he was allowed to return with his wife; however, under the condition that he must not set eyes upon his wife until they finished their travel out of the underworld. Orpheus was unable to fulfill this condition and tragically, his wife vanished forever.[20][3]: 151
According to Pseudo-Apollodorus inBibliotheca,Marsyas the Phrygian satyr once boasted of his skills in the aulos; a musical contest between Marsyas and Apollo was then conducted, where the victor could do "whatever they wanted" to the loser.[21] Marsyas played his aulos so wildly that everyone burst into dance, while Apollo played his lyre so beautifully that everyone cried.
The muses judged the first round to be a draw. According to one account, Apollo then played his lyre upside down, which Marsyas could not do with the aulos. In another account Apollo sang beautifully, which Marsyas could not do. In another account, Marsyas played out of tune and accepted defeat. In all accounts, Apollo thenflayed Marsyas alive for losing.
A later vivid Roman representation of a woman playing thekithara,fresco painting,c. 30-40 BC
Lyre
A strummed and occasionallyplucked string instrument, essentially a hand-heldzither built on a tortoise-shell (chelys) frame, generally with seven or more strings tuned to the notes of one of the modes. Thelyre was a folk-instrument, associated with the cult of Apollo. It was used to accompany others or even oneself for recitation and song, and was the conventional training-instrument for an aristocratic education.
Cithara
Cithara was a professional version of the lyre used by paid musicians. Thekithara had a box-type frame with strings stretched from the cross-bar at the top to thesounding box at the bottom; it was held upright and played with aplectrum.[22] The strings were tunable by adjusting wooden wedges along the cross-bar. In thePolitics,Aristotle describes the cithara as an "organon technikon", or an artist's instrument, requiring training.[23]
A seated woman playing thebarbiton (detail), Atticred-figure amphora,c. 460 BC
Barbiton
A larger, bass-version of the cithara, considered to be east-Ionian, an exotic and somewhat foreign instrument. Thebarbiton was the primary instrument of the highly regarded ancient lyricistSappho, as well as often associated with satyrs.
Kanonaki
A trapezoidalpsaltery, invented by the Pythagoreans in the 6th century BC, however, may have had Mycenaean origins. Thekanonaki was held on the thighs of the player, and plucked with both hands with bone pickings.
Harp
Harps are among the oldest known string instruments, and were in use by Sumerians and Egyptians long before they were present in Greece. The ancient version of the harp resembles a bow, with the strings connecting to the top and bottom of the arch. The strings are perpendicular to the soundbox, while the strings on a lyre are parallel.[24]
A youth playing theaulon to a bearded man and his goose. Atticblack-figure amphora,c. 560 BC.
Aulos
Usually double, consisting of two double-reed (like an oboe) pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band to hold both pipes steadily between the player's lips. Modern reconstructions of theaulos indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound. There is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument; alternate descriptions indicate single-reeds instead of double reeds. It was associated with the cult of Dionysus.
Syrinx or Pan flute
Syrinx (σύριγξ), also known asPan flute, is an ancient musical instrument based on the principle of the stopped pipe, consisting of a series of such pipes of gradually increasing length, tuned (by cutting) to a desired scale. Sound is produced by blowing across the top of the open pipe (like blowing across a bottle top).
Hydraulis
Thehydraulis. Note the presence of the curved trumpet, called thebukanē by the Greeks and, later,cornu by the Romans.
A keyboard instrument, the forerunner of the modern pipe organ. As the name indicates, thehydraulis used water to supply a constant flow of pressure to the pipes. Two detailed descriptions have survived: that of Vitruvius[25] and Heron of Alexandria.[26] These descriptions deal primarily with the keyboard mechanism and with the apparatus that supplied the instrument with air.[a]
The enigmatic ancient Greek figure ofPythagoras with mathematical devotion laid the foundations of our knowledge of the study ofharmonics—how strings and columns of air vibrate, how they produceovertones, how the overtones are related arithmetically to one another, etc.[28] It was common to hear of the "music of the spheres" from the Pythagoreans. After studying the sound hammers made in a blacksmith's forge, Pythagoras invented themonochord, which has a movable bridge along with a string stretched over a sounding board. Using the monochord, he found the association between the vibrations and the lengths of the strings.[29]
At a certain point,Plato complained about the new music:
Our music was once divided into its proper forms ... It was not permitted to exchange the melodic styles of these established forms and others. Knowledge and informed judgment penalized disobedience. There were no whistles, unmusical mob-noises, or clapping for applause. The rule was to listen silently and learn; boys, teachers, and the crowd were kept in order by threat of the stick. ... But later, an unmusical anarchy was led by poets who had natural talent, but were ignorant of the laws of music ... Through foolishness they deceived themselves into thinking that there was no right or wrong way in music, that it was to be judged good or bad by the pleasure it gave. By their works and their theories they infected the masses with the presumption to think themselves adequate judges. So our theatres, once silent, grew vocal, and aristocracy of music gave way to a pernicioustheatrocracy ... the criterion was not music, but a reputation for promiscuous cleverness and a spirit of law-breaking.[30]
Photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing thesecond of the two hymns to Apollo. The music notation is the line of occasional symbols above the main, uninterrupted line of Greek lettering.
From his references to "established forms" and "laws of music" we can assume that at least some of the formality of the Pythagorean system of harmonics and consonance had taken hold of Greek music, at least as it was performed by professional musicians in public, and that Plato was complaining about the falling away from such principles into a "spirit of law-breaking".
Playing what "sounded good" violated the establishedethos of modes that the Greeks had developed by the time of Plato: a complex system of relating certain emotional and spiritual characteristics to certainmodes (scales). The names for the various modes derived from the names of Greek tribes and peoples, the temperament and emotions of which were said to be characterized by the unique sound of each mode. Thus, Dorian modes were "harsh", Phrygian modes "sensual", and so forth. In hisRepublic,[31] Plato talks about the proper use of various modes, theDorian,Phrygian,Lydian, etc. It is difficult for the modern listener to relate to that concept ofethos in music except by comparing our own perceptions that a minor scale is used for melancholy and a major scale for virtually everything else, from happy to heroic music.
The sounds of scales vary depending on the placement oftones. Modern Western scales use the placement of whole tones, such as C to D on a modern piano keyboard, and half tones, such as C to C-sharp, but not quarter-tones ("in the cracks" on a modern keyboard) at all. This limit on tone types creates relatively few kinds of scales in modern Western music compared to that of the Greeks, who used the placement of whole-tones, half-tones, and even quarter-tones (or still smaller intervals) to develop a large repertoire of scales, each with a uniqueethos. The Greek concepts of scales (including the names) found its way into later Roman music and then the European Middle Ages to the extent that one can find references to, for example, a "Lydianchurch mode", although name is simply a historical reference with no relationship to the original Greek sound orethos.
From the descriptions that have come down to us through the writings of those such asPlato,Aristoxenus[32] and, later,Boethius,[33] we can say with some caution that the ancient Greeks, at least before Plato, heard music that was primarily monophonic; that is, music built on single melodies based on a system of modes / scales, themselves built on the concept that notes should be placed between consonant intervals. It is a commonplace of musicology to say that harmony, in the sense of a developed system of composition, in which many tones at once contribute to the listener's expectation of resolution, was invented in the European Middle Ages and that ancient cultures had no developed system of harmony—that is, for example, playing the third and seventh above the dominant, in order to create the expectation for the listener that the tritone will resolve to the third.
Plato'sRepublic notes that Greek musicians sometimes played more than one note at a time, although this was apparently considered an advanced technique. TheOrestes fragment of Euripides seems to clearly call for more than one note to be sounded at once.[34] Research[35] in the field of music from the ancient Mediterranean—decipherings of cuneiform music script—argue for the sounding of different pitches simultaneously and for the theoretical recognition of a "scale" many centuries before the Greeks learned to write, which they would have done before they developed their system for notating music and recorded the written evidence for simultaneous tones. All we can say from the available evidence is that, while Greek musicians clearly employed the technique of sounding more than one note at the same time, the most basic, common texture of Greek music was monophonic.
That much seems evident from another passage from Plato:
... The lyre should be used together with the voices ... the player and the pupil producing note for note in unison,Heterophony and embroidery by the lyre—the strings throwing out melodic lines different from themelodia which the poet composed; crowded notes where his are sparse, quick time to his slow ... and similarly all sorts of rhythmic complications against the voices—none of this should be imposed upon pupils ...[36]
Aristotle had a strong belief that music should be a part of one's education, alongside reading and writing, and gymnastics. Just as men must work hard in their duties, they must also be able to relax well. According to Aristotle, all men could agree that music was one of the most pleasurable things, so to have this as a means of leisure was only logical. Amusing oneself was not considered a viable hobby, or else we would not want to help in society. Since music combined relaxing ourselves, along with others, Aristotle claimed that learning an instrument was essential to our development.[37]: 10
Virtues is a topic that Aristotle is widely known for, and he also used them to justify why music should be involved in education. Since virtues consist of loving and rejoicing in something, then music could be pursued without issue. Music forms our character, so it should also be a part of our education. Aristotle also comments on how getting children involved in music would be a way to keep them occupied and quiet. It is important to note that since music helps in forming the character, it could cause either adverse or pleasant effects. The way in which music is taught can have a large impact on development.[37]: 16
Learning music should not interfere with the younger years, nor should it damage the body in a way that a person is unable to fulfill duties in the military. Those that have learned music in education should not be at the same level as a professional, but they should have a greater knowledge than the slaves and other commoners.[37]: 15 Aristotle was specific in what instruments should be learned. Theharp andflute should not be taught in school, as they are too complicated. Additionally, only certain melodies have benefits in an educational setting. Ethical melodies should be taught, but melodies of passion and melodies of action should be for performances.[37]: 16
^A well-preserved Hydraulis model made of pottery was found atCarthage in 1885. Essentially, the air to the pipes that produce the sound comes from a wind-chest connected by a pipe to a dome; air is pumped in to compress water, and the water rises in the dome, compressing the air, and causing a steady supply of air to the pipes.[27]
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