Themusical traditions ofSpain have played an important role in the development of bothwestern classical andLatin American music. Spanish music includes many different traditional styles from across the country, among whichflamenco andclassical guitar are probably the best-known abroad. Music from the north-west regions is heavily reliant onbagpipes, thejota is widespread in the centre and north of the country, and flamenco originated in the south.
Spanish music played a notable part in the early developments of western classical music from the 15th through the early 17th century. The breadth of musical innovation can be seen in composers likeTomás Luis de Victoria, styles like thezarzuela ofSpanish opera, the ballet ofManuel de Falla, and the classical guitar music ofFrancisco Tárrega. Nowadays, in Spain as elsewhere, various styles of commercialpopular music are dominant.
Throughout its history, theIberian Peninsula has received musical influences from around theMediterranean Sea and across Europe.[1]: 1-5 In the two centuries before the Christian era,Roman rule introduced the music and ideas ofAncient Greece. Early Christians, who had their own differing versions of church music, arrived during the height of the Roman Empire. TheVisigoths, a RomanizedGermanic people, took control of the peninsula following the fall of the Roman Empire, and later theMoors and Jews arrived in the Middle Ages.[2]: 1–20
These more than two thousand years of internal and external influences produced a large number of unique musical traditions that continue to shape Spanish music today.[1]: 1-5
Isidore of Seville, the prolific 7th-century scholar, wrote extensively about music theory and practice in his encyclopedic workEtymologiae, providing valuable documentation of musical customs in Visigothic Spain.[1]: 10-15
Among the early Muslim rulers ofAl-Andalus, music was generally tolerated and often encouraged.Abd al-Rahman I andAbd ar-Rahman II both kept singers and musicians at court, primarily brought over from the Arabian peninsula or the Levant.[2]: 99 The most notable of these early Umayyad musicians wasZiryab, a lute player and singer whose method of teaching singing became widely influential in the region.[2]: 104 This royal patronage extended to the nobility, who held concerts in their homes and procured musical entertainment for social events.[2]: 108
While some later monarchs such asAbd ar-Rahman III andAl-Hakam I were more austere,Almanzor revived musical patronage in the 10th century.[2]: 109-110 During his reign, the education of noble girls included learning instruments such as the lute,rabel,manucordio, and organ.[2]: 114 Court orchestras could be substantial—one in the reign ofMuhammad II of Córdoba reportedly had "a hundred lutes and a hundred flutes".[2]: 110 TheTaifa of Seville was particularly notable for its musical culture, with rulerAl-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad being a musician himself.[2]: 111
Court music originally drew from Arabian and Levantine forms, but over time a distinctive Iberian style evolved, featuring thezejel andmuwashah lyric patterns that also appear in Spanish poetry.[2]: 118-119 [1]: 29 These 'eastern' styles were also adopted by common people, who combined them with regional traditions.[2]: 119
Muslim rulers were usually relatively tolerant of Christianity and Judaism, especially during the first three centuries of their presence, allowing Christian andJewish music to flourish.[1]: 20-25 Music notation was developed in Spain as early as the 8th century (the so-called Visigothicneumes) to notate sacredmusic of the Christian church, though this obscure notation has not yet been fully deciphered.[1]: 15-18
The music of the early medieval Christian church in Spain is known as the "Mozarabic Chant", which developed in isolation prior to the Islamic invasion and was not subject to thePapacy's enforcement ofGregorian chant.[1]: 18-20 As the Christianreconquista progressed, these chants were almost entirely replaced by the Gregorian standard.[1]: 20 Meanwhile, earlier musical folk styles from the pre-Islamic period continued in the countryside, in the same way as the Mozarabic Chant persisted in the churches.[2]: 119-125
In the royal Christian courts of the reconquistors, music like theCantigas de Santa Maria reflected Moorish influences.[1]: 35-40 Other important medieval sources include theCodex Calixtinus fromSantiago de Compostela, theCodex Las Huelgas fromBurgos, and theLlibre Vermell de Montserrat, a 14th-century devotional collection containing pilgrim songs and dances.[1]: 45-60
In the earlyRenaissance,Mateo Flecha el Viejo and the Castilian dramatistJuan del Encina ranked among the main composers in the post-Ars Nova period.[1]: 100-110 Renaissance song books included theCancionero de Palacio, theCancionero de Medinaceli, theCancionero de Upsala (kept inCarolina Rediviva library), theCancionero de la Colombina, and the laterCancionero de la Sablonara.[1]: 110-120 The organistAntonio de Cabezón stands out for his keyboard compositions and mastery.[1]: 150-155
An early 16th-centurypolyphonic vocal style developed in Spain was closely related to that of theFranco-Flemish composers.[1]: 120-130 Merging of these styles occurred during the period when theHoly Roman Empire and theBurgundy were part of the dominions underCharles I (king of Spain from 1516 to 1556), since composers from the North of Europe visited Spain, and native Spaniards traveled within the empire, which extended to theNetherlands, Germany and Italy.[1]: 130-140
Music composed for thevihuela byLuis de Milán,Alonso Mudarra andLuis de Narváez was one of the main achievements of the period.[1]: 140-145 The AragoneseGaspar Sanz authored the first learning method for guitar.[1]: 200-205
Spanish composers of the Renaissance includedFrancisco Guerrero,Cristóbal de Morales, andTomás Luis de Victoria (late Renaissance period), all of whom spent a significant portion of their careers in Rome.[1]: 160-180 Victoria was recognized by contemporaries as having reached a level of polyphonic perfection and expressive intensity comparable toPalestrina andLassus.[1]: 175-180 Most Spanish composers returned home from travels abroad late in their careers to spread their musical knowledge in their native land, or in the late 16th century to serve at the Court ofPhilip II.[1]: 180-190
By the end of the 17th century, the "classical" musical culture of Spain had entered a period of decline, and would remain that way until the 19th century.[3]: 1-3 Classicism in Spain, when it arrived, was inspired by Italian models, as in the works ofAntonio Soler.[3]: 2 Some outstanding Italian composers such asDomenico Scarlatti andLuigi Boccherini were appointed to the Madrid royal court, bringing Italian musical sensibilities to Spanish audiences.[3]: 2-3 The short-livedJuan Crisóstomo Arriaga is credited as the main beginner of Romantic sinfonism in Spain.[3]: 3
Although symphonic music was never too important in Spain, chamber, solo instrumental (mainly guitar and piano) vocal and opera (both traditional opera, and the Spanish version of the singspiel) music was written by local composers.[3]: 3-4
Zarzuela, a native form of opera that includes spoken dialogue, is a secular musical genre which developed in the mid-17th century, flourishing most importantly in the century after 1850.[3]: 4 Francisco Asenjo Barbieri was a key figure in the development of the romantic zarzuela; whilst later composers such asRuperto Chapí,Federico Chueca andTomás Bretón brought the genre to its late 19th-century apogee.[3]: 4 Leading 20th-century zarzuela composers includedPablo Sorozábal andFederico Moreno Torroba.[3]: 4-5 Due to the genre's popularity, many 19th-century composers wrote in the style.[3]: 4
Fernando Sor,Dionisio Aguado,Francisco Tárrega andMiguel Llobet are known as composers of guitar music.[3]: 5-6 Fine literature for violin was created byPablo Sarasate andJesús de Monasterio.[3]: 6
Musical creativity mainly moved into areas of popular music until the nationalist revival of the late Romantic era.[3]: 6-8 Spanish composers of this period includedFelipe Pedrell,Isaac Albéniz,Enrique Granados,Joaquín Turina,Manuel de Falla,Jesús Guridi,Ernesto Halffter,Federico Mompou,Salvador Bacarisse, andJoaquín Rodrigo.[3]: 8-10
By the early 20th century, Spanish music was largely divorced from the intellectual sphere, an ongoing trend since the 18th century, and thus the literary movements of the period largely lacked overlap with musicians.[3]: 11-12 However, the two spheres had begun to collaborate again by the beginning of theSpanish Civil War.[3]: 12
Opera in Spain struggled in the 20th century, with many theatres closing, including theTeatro Real.[3]: 13 However, orchestral music gained more opportunities, with the establishment of theOrquesta Sinfónica de Madrid, theSociedad Filarmónica de Madrid, and theBarcelona Symphony Orchestra in the 1900s and 1910s.[3]: 15 Choral music saw a similar boost, with the establishment of permanent choirs across the country, and chamber music secured a place in the country with a number of quartets.[3]: 15 TheMadrid andBarcelona conservatories were "lively centers of musical life".[3]: 15
During the 1940s and 1950s, Spanish music was shaped by the aftermath of the Civil War andFrancisco Franco's dictatorship. The regime used censorship as a tool to control cultural expression, with the Falangist Vice-Secretariat of Popular Education banning the broadcasting of "so-called black music, swing dances, or any other kind of compositions whose lyrics are in a foreign language".[4]
Traditional genres like flamenco and classical music continued under the regime, though flamenco was at times restricted from public display.[3]: 20-30 Popular music forms such as zarzuela andpasodoble remained prominent during this period. The regime's musical censorship was controlled by two agencies: the Directorate General of Popular Culture and the Directorate General of Radio and Television, which operated between 1960 and 1977 and classified approximately 4,000 songs as unfit for broadcast.[5]
Despite strict censorship and limited outlets for contemporary music, theBenidorm International Song Festival, established in 1959, provided an important platform for Spanish musicians.[6] The contest, modeled on Italy'sSan Remo Music Festival, was created to promote Benidorm and Spanish music. During the festival's peak years from 1959 to 1971, it featured emerging personalities of Spanish light song, includingDúo Dinámico,Raphael, Bruno Lomas, andJulio Iglesias, who won in 1968 with "La vida sigue igual".[6][7]
The yé-yé movement, which took its name from the English pop-refrain "yeah-yeah", originated in France and spread to Spain during the mid-1960s.[8] The musical style combined Anglo-American influences with traditional European pop forms, featuring catchy, upbeat melodies and simple, danceable rhythms.[8]
The performers were often young female singers, known as "chicas yéyé" in Spain, who became popular idols.[8] In 1965, the Spanish comedy filmHistorias de la Televisión was released, featuring the song "Chica Yeyé" performed byConcha Velasco. The song rose to number one on the Spanish music charts, achieving widespread popularity and becoming one of the most recognizable songs in Spain.[8]Karina was regarded as "Queen of Spanish yé-yé" with hits including "En un mundo nuevo" and "El baúl de los recuerdos".[8]
In 1968,Massiel won theEurovision Song Contest with "La, la, la", a significant cultural milestone that placed Spanish pop music on the European stage. Other notable Spanish yé-yé artists includeMarisol,Rocío Dúrcal, Ana Belén, and Gelu.
Spain has over forty professional orchestras, including theOrquestra Simfònica de Barcelona,Orquesta Nacional de España, and theOrquesta Sinfónica de Madrid.[3]: 15
Spain also has a number ofopera houses, including theTeatro Real, theGran Teatre del Liceu,Teatro Arriaga, and theEl Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.[3]: 13-15
Spanish pop music developed during the years ofFrancisco Franco's regime, which presented challenges for artists seeking to explore contemporary styles.[3]: 200-205 During the 1960s and early 1970s, tourism brought additional musical styles from elsewhere in Europe and abroad.[3]: 205-210
The regime's restrictions on women's roles in public life created barriers for female musicians. Nevertheless, some achieved considerable success, such asMarisol, who began her career as a child star in the 1960s, andRocío Dúrcal, who became a prominent figure in Spanish music and film.[3]: 210
Following Franco's death in 1975, the 1980s broughtLa Movida Madrileña, a countercultural movement centered in Madrid.[9] The movement coincided with economic growth in Spain and a widespread desire for the development of a post-Francoist identity. The "Concierto homenaje a Canito" (Canito Memorial Concert), which took place on 9 February 1980, is traditionally considered the beginning of La Movida Madrileña.[10]
La Movida featured a rise inpunk rock andsynth-pop music, drawing influence fromnew wave, Germany'sNeue Deutsche Welle, and the BritishNew Romantic movement.[9] Notable artists includedKaka de Luxe,Radio Futura,Nacha Pop,Gabinete Caligari, andLos Secretos.[10] Two popular bands wereMecano andAlaska y los Pegamoides.[9]
Female artists such as Alaska (of Alaska y los Pegamoides and laterFangoria) became cultural icons during this period.[10] Alaska was one of the founding members of La Movida and participated in several music groups including Kaka de Luxe (1977), Alaska y los Pegamoides (1980), Alaska y Dinarama (1983), and since 1989, the electronic band Fangoria.[9] Film directorPedro Almodóvar had a significant influence on the Movida with his films, and remains its most internationally famous participant.[10]
The 1990s were characterized by a vibrant underground music scene in major cities like Madrid and Barcelona. Alternative rock bands such asLos Planetas andDover gained prominence.[11][12]
Los Planetas, an indie rock group from Granada formed in 1993, became one of the flagship artists of the 1990s alternative movement in Spain.[11] Their 1998 albumUna semana en el motor de un autobús earned them critical acclaim, and was named best album of 1998 by the Spanish music magazineRockdelux.[13] Dover, formed in 1992, gained international recognition with their 1997 albumDevil Came to Me, which sold over 500,000 copies and won the band the Ondas Award for best Spanish group revelation.[12][14] Electronic music and dance clubs further diversified the musical landscape during this period.
Julio Iglesias,Enrique Iglesias, andAlejandro Sanz represent Spanish pop music's international reach. Julio Iglesias achieved unprecedented success as the best-selling male Latin artist of all time.[15]
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Enrique Iglesias and Alejandro Sanz have won major international music awards including theGrammy Award.
As Spanish is commonly spoken in Spain and most of Latin America, music from both regions has been able to cross over.[16] According to theSociedad General de Autores y Editores (SGAE), Spain is the largest Latino music market in the world.[17]
As a result, theLatin music industry encompasses Spanish-language music from Spain.[18][19] TheLatin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences, the organization responsible for theLatin Grammy Awards, includes music from Spain, with a category forBest Flamenco Album and voting members living in the country.[20][21]
The regions of Spain have distinctive musical traditions.[22] There is also a movement of singer-songwriters with politically active lyrics, paralleling similar developments in Latin America andPortugal.[22] The singer and composerEliseo Parra (b 1949) has recorded traditional folk music from the Basque country and Castile as well as his own compositions inspired from the musical styles of Spain and abroad.
ThoughAndalusia is best known forflamenco music, there is also a tradition ofgaita rociera (tabor pipe) music in western Andalusia and a distinct violin and plucked-string type of band music known aspanda de verdiales inMálaga.[23]
Sevillanas is related to flamenco and most flamenco performers have at least one classic sevillana in their repertoire.[23] The style originated as a medieval Castilian dance, called theseguidilla, which was adopted with a flamenco style in the 19th century. Today, this lively couples' dance is popular in most parts of Spain, though the dance is often associated with the city of Seville's famousEaster feria.
The region has also produced singer-songwriters likeJavier Ruibal andCarlos Cano [es], who revived a traditional music calledcopla.[23] CatalanKiko Veneno andJoaquín Sabina are popular performers in a distinctly Spanish-stylerock music, whileSephardic musicians likeAurora Moreno,Luís Delgado andRosa Zaragoza keep AndalusianSephardic music alive.
Jota, popular across Spain, might have its historical roots in the southern part ofAragon.[22] Jota instruments include thecastanets, guitar,bandurria,tambourines and sometimes the flute. Theguitarro, a unique kind of small guitar also seen in Murcia, seems Aragonese in origin.
Besides its music for stick-dances anddulzaina (shawm), Aragon has its owngaita de boto (bagpipes) andchiflo (tabor pipe).[22] As in the Basque country, Aragonese chiflo can be played along to achicotén string-drum (psaltery) rhythm.
Northwest Spain (Asturias, Galicia andCantabria) is home to a distinct musical tradition extending back into the Middle Ages.[22] The signature instrument of the region is thegaita (bagpipe). The gaita is often accompanied by asnare drum, called thetamboril, and is played in processional marches.
Other instruments include therequinta, a kind offife, as well asharps,fiddles,rebec andzanfona (hurdy-gurdy).[22] The music itself runs the gamut from uptempomuiñeiras to stately marches. As in the Basque Country,Cantabrian music also features intricate arch and stick dances but thetabor pipe does not play as an important role as it does in Basque music.
Traditionally, Galician music included a type of chanting song known asalalas. Alalas may include instrumental interludes, and were believed to have a very long history, based on legends.[22]
There are local festivals of whichOrtigueira'sFestival Internacional do Mundo Celta is especially important.[24] Drum and bagpipe couples range among the most beloved kinds of Galician music, that also includes popular bands likeMilladoiro.[22]Pandereteiras are traditional groups of women that play tambourines and sing - bands likeTanxugueiras are directly influenced by this tradition. The bagpipe virtuososCarlos Núñez andSusana Seivane are especially popular performers.[22]
Asturias is also home to popular musicians such as José ÁngelHevia (bagpiper) and the groupLlan de cubel.[22] Circular dances using a 6/8 tambourine rhythm are a hallmark of this area. Vocalasturianadas show melismatic ornamentations similar to those of other parts of the Iberian Peninsula. There are many festivals, such as "Folixa na Primavera" (April, inMieres), "Intercelticu d'Avilés" (Interceltic festival ofAvilés, in July), as well as many "Celtic nights" in Asturias.
In theBalearic Islands,Xeremiers orcolla de xeremiers are a traditional ensemble that consists offlabiol (a five-holetabor pipe) andxeremias (bagpipes).[22]Mallorca'sMaria del Mar Bonet was one of the most influential artists ofnova canço, known for her political and social lyrics.Tomeu Penya,Biel Majoral,Cerebros Exprimidos andJoan Bibiloni are also popular.
The most popular kind ofBasque music is named after the dancetrikitixa, which is based on theaccordion andtambourine.[25] Popular performers areJoseba Tapia andKepa Junkera.[25]
Highly appreciated folk instruments are thetxistu (atabor pipe similar to Occitaniangaloubet recorder),alboka (a doubleclarinet played in circular-breathing technique, similar to other Mediterranean instruments likelauneddas) andtxalaparta (a hugexylophone, similar to the Romaniantoacă and played by two performers).[22] As in many parts of the Iberian peninsula, there are ritual dances with sticks, swords and arches made from vegetation. Other popular dances are thefandango,jota and 5/8zortziko.
Basques on both sides of the Spanish-French border have been known for their singing since theMiddle Ages, and a surge of Basque nationalism at the end of the 19th century led to the establishment of large Basque-languagechoirs that helped preserve their language and songs.[22] Even during the persecution of theFrancisco Franco era (1939–1975), when the Basque language was outlawed, traditional songs and dances were preserved in secret, and they continue to thrive despite the popularity of commercially marketed pop music.
In theCanary Islands, Isa, a local kind ofJota, is now popular, andLatin American musical (Cuban) influences are quite widespread, especially with thecharango (a kind of guitar).[22]Timple, a local instrument which resemblesukulele /cavaquinho, is commonly seen in plucked-string bands.
A popular set onEl Hierro island consists of drums and woodenfifes (pito herreño). Thetabor pipe is customary in some ritual dances on the island ofTenerife.[22]
A large inland region,Castile, Madrid andLeon wereCeltiberian country before its annexation and cultural latinization by the Roman Empire but it is extremely doubtful that anything from the musical traditions of the Celtic era have survived.[22]
Ever since, the area has been a musical melting pot, includingRoman,Visigothic, Jewish,Moorish, Italian, French andRoma influences, but the longstanding influences from the surrounding regions andPortugal continue to play an important role.[22] Areas within Castile and León generally tend to have more musical affinity with neighboring regions than with more distant parts of the region. This has given the region diverse musical traditions.
Jota is popular, but is uniquely slow in Castile and León, unlike its more energetic Aragonese version.[22] Instrumentation also varies much from the one in Aragon. Northern León, that shares a language relationship with a region in northern Portugal and the Spanish regions of Asturias and Galicia, also shares their musical influences. Here, thegaita (bagpipe) andtabor pipe playing traditions are prominent.
In most of Castile, there is a strong tradition of dance music fordulzaina (shawm) androndalla groups.[22] Popular rhythms include 5/8charrada and circle dances,jota andhabas verdes. As in many other parts of the Iberian peninsula, ritual dances includepaloteos (stick dances).
Salamanca is known as the home oftuna, aserenade played with guitars andtambourines, mostly by students dressed in medieval clothing.[22]Madrid is known for itschotis music, a local variation to the 19th-centuryschottische dance.Flamenco, although not considered native, is popular among some urbanites but is mainly confined to Madrid.
ThoughCatalonia is best known forsardana music played by acobla, there are other traditional styles of dance music likeball de bastons (stick-dances),galops,ball de gitanes.[26] Music is at the forefront incercaviles and celebrations similar toPatum inBerga.
Flabiol (a five-holetabor pipe),gralla ordolçaina (ashawm) andsac de gemecs (a localbagpipe) are traditional folk instruments that make part of somecoblas.[26]
Catalangipsies and Andalusian immigrants to Catalonia created their own style ofrumba calledrumba catalana which is a popular style that's similar to flamenco, but not technically part of the flamenco canon.[27] The rumba catalana originated in Barcelona when the rumba and other Afro-Cuban styles arrived from Cuba in the 19th and early 20th centuries.[27] Catalan performers adapted them to the flamenco format and made it their own. Though often dismissed by aficionados as "fake" flamenco, rumba catalana remains popular.
Thehavaneres singers remain popular. Nowadays, young people cultivateRock català popular music, as some years ago theNova Cançó was relevant.[22]
Having long been the poorest part of Spain,Extremadura is a largely rural region known for the Portuguese influence on its music.[22] As in the northern regions of Spain, there is a rich repertoire fortabor pipe music.
Thezambomba friction-drum (similar to Portuguesesarronca or Braziliancuica) is played by pulling on a rope which is inside the drum. It is found throughout Spain.[22] Thejota is common, here played withtriangles,castanets, guitars,tambourines,accordions and zambombas.
Murcia is a region in the south-east of Spain which, historically, experienced considerable Moorish colonisation, is similar in many respects to its neighbour, Andalusia.[23] The guitar-accompaniedcante jondoFlamenco style is especially associated with Murcia as arerondallas, plucked-string bands.
Christian songs, such as the polyphonic chant of theAuroro singers, are traditionally sunga cappella, sometimes accompanied by the sound ofchurch bells, and cuadrillas are festive songs primarily played during holidays, like Christmas.[22]
Navarre andLa Rioja are small northern regions with diverse cultural elements.[22] Bordered by Aragon and the Basque Autonomous Community, they also share much of the music found in those two regions.
Northern Navarre isBasque in language, while the Southern section shares moreAragonese features.[22] Thejota genre is also known in both Navarre and La Rioja. Both regions have rich dance anddulzaina (shawm) traditions.Txistu (tabor pipe) anddulzaina ensembles are very popular in the public celebrations of Navarre.
Traditional music fromValencia is characteristically Mediterranean in origin.[22] Valencia also has its local kind ofJota. Moreover, Valencia has a high reputation for musical innovation, and performingbrass bands calledbandes are common, with one appearing in almost every town.
Dolçaina (shawm) is widely found.[22] Valencia also shares some traditional dances with other Iberian areas, like for instance, the ball de bastons (stick-dances). The groupAl Tall is also well-known, experimenting with the Berber bandMuluk El Hwa, and revitalizing traditional Valencian music, following theRiproposta Italian musical movement.
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