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Themusic of Barbados includes distinctive national styles offolk andpopular music, including elements ofWestern classical andreligious music. Theculture of Barbados is a syncretic mix of African and British elements, and the island's music reflects this mix through song types and styles, instrumentation, dances, and aesthetic principles.
Barbadian folk traditions include theLandship movement, which is a satirical, informal organization based on theRoyal Navy,tea meetings,tuk bands and numerous traditional songs and dances. In modern Barbados, popular styles includecalypso,spouge,contemporary folk andworld music. Barbados is, along with Guadeloupe, Martinique, Trinidad, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, one of the few centres for Caribbean jazz.[1]
Bajan culture issyncretic, and the island's musical culture is perceived as a mixture of African and British musics, with certain unique elements that may derive from indigenous sources. Tension between African and British culture has long been a major element of Barbadian history, and has included the banning of certain African-derived practices and black Barbadian parodies of British traditions.[2] Simple entertainment is the basis for most Barbadians' participation in music and dance activities, though religious and other functional musics also occur. Barbadian folk culture declined in importance in the 20th century, but then rekindled in the 1970s, when many Barbadians became interested in their national culture and history.[3] This change was heralded by the arrival ofspouge, a popular national genre that reflects Barbadian heritage and African origins; spouge helped kindle a resurgence in national pride, and became viewed as Barbados' answer to the popular Caribbean genresreggae andcalypso from Jamaica and Trinidad, respectively.[4]
The religious music of the Barbadian Christian churches plays an important role in Barbadian musical identity, especially in urban areas. Many distinctive Barbadian musical and other cultural traditions derive from parodies ofAnglican church hymns and British militarydrills. The British military performedexhibition drills to both provide security for the island's population, as well as intimidate slaves.[5] Modern Barbadiantea meetings,tuk bands, theLandship tradition and many folk songs come from slaves parodying the practices of white authorities. British-Barbadians used music for cultural and intellectual enrichment and to feel a sense of kinship and connection with the British Isles through the maintenance of British musical forms. Plantation houses featured music as entertainment at balls, dances and other gatherings. For Afro-Barbadians, drum, vocal and dance music was an integral part of everyday life, and songs and performance practices were created for normal, everyday events, as well as special celebrations includingWhitsuntide,Christmas,Easter,Landship andCrop Over. These songs remain a part of Barbadian culture and form a rich folk repertoire.[3]
Western classical music is the most socially accepted form of musical expression for Barbadians inBridgetown, including a variety of vocal music,chamber andorchestral music, andpiano andviolin. Along withhymns,oratorios,cantatas and other religious music, chamber music of the Western tradition remains an important part of Barbadian music through an integral role in the services of the Anglican church.[3]
Though inhabited prior to the 16th century, little is known about Barbadian music before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1536 and then the English in 1627. The Portuguese left little influence, but English culture and music helped shape the island's heritage. Irish and Scottish settlers emigrated in the 17th century, working in thetobacco industry, bringing still more new music to the island. The middle of the 17th century saw the decline of the tobacco industry and the rise ofsugarcane, as well as the introduction of large numbers of African slaves. Brazilian exiles however, along with sugarcane introducedSamba to the island which featured a mixture of Latin music with African influences which soon developed into Soca-Samba which is indigenous to Barbados. Modern Barbadian music is thus largely a combination of English and African elements, with Irish, Scottish, and modern American and Caribbean (especially Jamaican) influences as well.[3]
By the 19th century, the Barbadian colonialists grew to fear slave revolts, and specifically, the use of music as a tool of communication and planning for revolution. As a result, the government passed laws to restrict musical activities among slaves. At the same time, American and other forms of imported music were brought to Barbados, while many important elements of modern Barbadian music, such astuk bands, also emerged. In the 20th century, many new styles were imported to Barbados, most influentially includingjazz,ska,reggae,calypso andsoca. Barbados became home to many performers of these new genres, especially soca and calypso, while the island also produced an indigenous style calledspouge, which became an important symbol of Barbadian identity.[3][4]
Barbadian culture and music are mixtures of European and African elements, with minimal influence from the indigenous peoples of the island, about whom little is known. Significant numbers of Asian, specifically Chinese and Japanese, people have moved to Barbados, but their music is unstudied and has had little impact on Barbadian music.[3]
The earliest reference to Afro-Barbadian music may come from a description of a slave rebellion, in which the rebels were inspired to fight by music played on skin drums, conch trumpets and animal horns.[5] Slavery continued, however, and the colonial and slaveowning authorities eventually outlawed musical instruments among slaves. By the end of the 17th century, a distinctly Barbadian folk culture developed, based around influences and instruments from Africa, Britain and other Caribbean islands.[3]
Early Barbadian folk music, despite legal restrictions, was a major part of life among the island's slave population. For the slaves, music was "essential for recreation and dancing and as a part of the life cycle for communication and religious meaning". African musicians also provided the music for the white landowners' private parties, while the slaves developed their own party music, culminating in thecrop over festival, which began in 1688. The earliest crop over festivals featured dancing andcall-and-response singing accompanied byshak-shak,banjo,bones and bottles containing varying amounts of water.[3]
Barbadian traditional folk songs are heavily influenced by themusic of England. Many traditional songs concern events current at the time of their composition, such as the emancipation of the slaves of Barbados, and the coronations ofVictoria,George V, andElizabeth II; this song tradition dates back to 1650. The most influential Barbadian folk songs are associated with the island's lower-class labourers, who have held on to their folk heritage.
Some Barbadian songs and stories made their way back to England, most famously "Inckle the English Sailor" and "Yarico the Indian Maid", which became English plays and an opera byGeorge Coleman with music bySamuel Arnold, and first performed in London in 1787.[6][7]
Contemporary Barbadian folk songs, especially through the pioneering albums of author and singer-songwriterAnthony Kellman, show a bold fusion of indigenous rhythms such as tuk and calypso with African, Latin, jazz, pop, and East Indian influences. Kellman's songs such as "Mountain" (from 2000 albumWings of A Stranger); "King Jaja" and "My Dog, Your Dog" (from 2005 albumLimestone); and "If You See My Girl" and "Tuk, Tabla, and Fedounoum" (from 2009 albumBlood Mates), exemplify his eclectic style. More than any of his contemporaries, Kellman, through his songs, poems and novels, demonstrates what it means to be Barbadian through a hybrid mix of African and European cultural elements.[8]
Barbadian folk dances include a wide variety of styles, performed atLandship, holidays and other occasions. Dancers and other performers at thecrop over festivals, for example, are popular and an iconic part of Barbadian culture, known for dancing in the costumes of sugarcane-cutters. The Landship movement features song and dance meant to imitate the passage of a Royal Navy ship through rough seas; Landship and other occasions also feature African-derived improvised and complexly-rhythmic dances, and Britishhornpipes,jigs,maypole dances and Marches.[3]
The "Jean and Johnnie" dance was an important part of Barbadian culture until it was banned in the 19th century. This was a popular fertility dance performed outdoors at plantation fairs and other festivals, and was functional in that it allowed women to show off to men and, more rarely, vice versa. The dance was eventually banned because it was associated with non-Christian African traditions.[3]
The Barbadian folk tradition is home to a great variety of musical instruments, imported from Africa, Great Britain or other Caribbean islands. The most central instrument group in Barbadian culture is thepercussion instruments. These include numerous drums, among them thepump and thetum tum, made from a hollowed-out tree trunk, the sidesnare drum and a double-headedbass drum of tuk bands. Folk musicians also usegongs made from tree trunks, bones,rook jaw,triangle,cymbals, bottles filled with water, andxylophones.Rattles are also widespread, and include the pan-Antilleanshak-shak and thecalabash,de shot and rattle. More recently imported folk percussion instruments include theconga andbongo from Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and Cuba, and thetambourine.[3]
String and wind instruments play an important role in Barbadian folk culture, especially the bow-fiddle,banjo and acousticguitar; more modern groups also use an electric and bass guitar. Theshukster is a distinctive instrument, made by stretching a guitar string between two sides of a house. Traditional Barbadian wind instruments are largely metal, but in their folk origins, were made out of locally found materials. Barbadian villagers burned fingerholes, for example, on bamboo tubes, made trumpets out ofconch shells and pipes frompumpkin vines. Many modern groups useharmonica,accordion,alto andtenor saxophone,trumpet andtrombone.[3]
Though Western classical and other musics play an important role in Anglican church services on Barbados, religion and folk music are closely intertwined in the everyday lives of most Barbadians. The basis for religious folk music is the Anglicanhymn, a kind of praise song mostly sung on Sundays, a day when Christian Barbadians come together with family members to sing and praise God to ask for strength for the next week's work.[9]
Pentecostal music has become a part of Barbadian religious and musical traditions since the 1920s. Music plays a role in Pentecostal ceremonies, and is provided by emotional and improvised performances accompaniedtambourines. In addition to the Anglican and Pentecostal traditions,Rastafarian music has spread to the island in more recent years, along withAfrican-American musical forms, especiallygospel, and theSpiritual Baptist religion, which derives from the TrinidadianShango cult that spread to Barbados in the 1960s.[3] One of the more Internationally known religious music groups from Barbados areThe Silvertones of Barbados.
A number of holidays, festivals and other celebrations play an integral role in Barbadian folk, and popular, music.Whitsuntide, Christmas, and Easter are important, each associated with their own musical traditions, as are distinctly Barbadian festivities like thecrop over festival and theLandship movement.
The original crop over festival celebrated the end of the sugarcane harvest. These festivals were held in the great house of the plantations, and included both slaves and plantation managers. Celebrations included drinking competitions, feasting, song and dance, and climbing a greased pole. Musical accompaniment was provided by triangle, fiddle, drums and a guitar, played by slave entertainers. Crop over festivals continue to play a part of Barbadian culture, and always feature music by performers in sugarcane-cutting costumes, even though many modern performers are not themselves sugarcane-cutters.[10]
The Barbadian Landship movement is an informal entertainment organization which mocks, through mimicry and satire, the Royal Navy. Landship began in 1837, founded by an individual known variously asMoses Ward andMoses Wood, in Britton's Hall inSeamen's Village. The structure of the Landship organization mirrors the structure of the Royal Navy, with a "ship" which is connected to a "dock" (a wooden house similar to achattel house), and leaders known asLord High Admiral,Captain,Boatswain and other navy ranks. Each unit is named like a typical navy ship and may include actual names of British ships or places. Landship performances symbolize and reflect the passage of ships through rough seas. Parades, jigs, hornpipes, maypole dances and other music and dance types are a part of the Landship Society's celebrations. TheCouncil of the Barbados Landship Association regulates the movement.[3][11]
Barbadian Christmas music is mostly based on church and concert hall performances, where typical North AmericanChristmas carols are performed, such as "White Christmas" and "Silver Bells", alongside works by English composers includingWilliam Byrd,Henry Walford Davies andThomas Tallis. In more recent years, calypso, reggae and other new elements have become a part of local Christmas traditions. As recently as the 1960s, Barbados was home to a distinctive practice, in whichscrubbers travelled from house to house singing hymns and receiving rewards from households.[3]
Tuk bands are Barbadian musical ensembles, consisting of a bow-fiddle orpennywhistle flute,kittle triangle and a snare and double-headed bass drum. The kittle and bass drum provide the rhythm, while the flute gives the melody.[12] The drums are light-weight so they can be carried easily, and are made by both rural villagers and drummers using cured sheepskin and goatskin. Tuk bands are based on the British military's regimental bands, which played for many years for special occasions, such as visiting royalty and coronations. The tuk sound has evolved over the years, as has the instrumentation, with the bow-fiddle used before being most commonly replaced by thepennywhistle flute.[3] Tuk bands are now most common in Landship events, but are still sometimes independent. On their own, tuk bands are generally accompanied by a range of iconic Barbadian characters, including "shaggy bears", "mother sally", "the steel donkey" and "green monkeys".[12] The upbeat modern sound of tuk ensembles are a distinctly Barbadian blend of African and British musics.[12][13]
Tea meetings are celebrations held in society lodges or school halls, and feature both solo and group performance, theatricalrhetoric andoratory, and other activities. After declining followingWorld War I, tea meetings have recently been revived and have regained their widespread popularity. They are held at nighttime, beginning at 9:00 pm and continuing until midnight, when there is a two-hour break for food and drink before the tea meeting is resumed.[3]
Barbados has produced few internationally popular musicians, with worldwide pop superstarRihanna being the most famous. It has, however, created a well-developed local scene playing imported styles such as Americanjazz andcalypso, as well as the indigenousspouge style. Calypso was the first popular music in Barbados, and dates back to the 1930s. Barbadian calypso is a comedic song form, accompanied by guitar and banjo. More recent styles of calypso have also kept a local scene alive, and produced a number of famous calypsonians. Spouge is a mixture of calypso and other styles, especiallyska, and became very popular in the 1960s, around the same time as the Barbadian jazz scene grew in stature and became home to a number of famous performers. Modern Barbadian popular music is largely based aroundreggae,ragga andsoca, and includes some elements of indigenous styles. Artists likeTerencia Coward have used modern popular music with instrumentation borrowed from folktuk bands. Two of the more popular bands of Barbadian popular music areKrosfyah andSquare One [now defunct]. Artists such asShirley Stewart, the lead singer of the bandThe Escorts International has gone on to produce hit songs such as the classic "Walk Away From Love", which is one of the most-played songs on the party scene in Barbados and through the world. "Walk Away From Love" remained at number one on the charts for months both in Barbados and throughout the Caribbean. The new wave of singers, largely soca, include Rupee, Lil' Rick and Jabae with lead vocalist Bruce and Barry Chandler, all recent winners atcrop over. A more experimental artist such as poet and fiction writerAnthony Kellman writes thoughtful poetic lyrics delivered in a musical style deeply rooted in Barbadian indigenous folk music with strong elements of African and Latin influences. His albumsWings of a Stranger,Limestone, andBlood Mates have been described as groundbreaking due to his highly original style.[14]
Prior to the 1930s, Barbadiancalypso was calledbanja, and was performed by labourers in village-tenantry areas. Itinerant minstrels such asMighty Jerry,Shilling Agard andSlammer were well-known forerunners of modern Barbadian calypso. Their song tradition embraced sentimentality, humour, and opinionated lyrics that continued to the 1960s, often by then accompanied by guitar or banjo.[3]
The mid-20th century brought new forms of music fromTrinidad,Brazil, theUnited States,Cuba and theDominican Republic to Barbados, and the Barbadian calypso style came to be viewed as lowbrow or inferior. Promoters such asLord Silvers andMighty Dragon, however, kept the popular tradition alive through shows at the Globe Theatre, featuring pioneersMighty Romeo,Sir Don Marshall,Lord Radio and the Bimshire Boys and Mike Wilkinson. These performers set the stage for the development of popular Barbadian calypso in the 1960s.[3]
In the early 1960s, Barbadian calypso grew in popularity and stature, led byViper,Mighty Gabby andThe Merrymen. The first calypso competitions were held in 1960, and they quickly grew larger and more prominent. The Merrymen became the island's most prominent contribution to calypso by the 1970s and into the 1980s. Their style, known asblue beat, incorporated Barbadian folk songs and ballads, as well as Americanblues,country music, and a distinctive sound created by harmonica, guitar and banjo.[3]
By the beginning of the 1980s,kaiso, a form of stage-presented calypso pioneered in Trinidad, was widespread at crop over and other celebrations.[15] The foundation of theNational Cultural Foundation in 1984 helped to promote and administer calypso festivals, which attracted tourists, stimulating the calypso industry. As a result, calypso has become a very visible and iconic part of Barbadian culture, and some calypsonians have become internationally renowned, includingMighty Gabby andRed Plastic Bag.[3]
Spouge is a style of Barbadian popular music created byJackie Opel in the 1960s. It is primarily a fusion of Jamaicanska with Trinidadiancalypso, but is also influenced by a wide variety of musics from the British Isles and United States, includesea shanties, hymns andspirituals. Spouge instrumentation originally consisted ofcowbell, bass guitar, trap set and various other electronic and percussion instruments, later augmented bysaxophone,trombone andtrumpets.[16] Of these, the cowbell and the guitar are widely seen as the most integral part of the instrumentation, and are said to reflect the African origin of much of Barbadian music.[4]
Two different kinds of spouge were popular in the 1960s,raw spouge (Draytons Two style) anddragon spouge (Cassius Clay style). The spouge industry grew immensely by the end of the 1970s, and produced popular stars including TheEscorts International,Blue Rhythm Combo, theDraytons Two andThe Troubadours.[3] Recent years has seen a resurgence of interest in spouge among some quarters, withDesmond Weekes of the Draytons Two being among people indicating that spouge should be encouraged because it is a national form that can reach international audiences and inspire the nation's pride in their cultural heritage.[4]
In 2024 "Pure Spouge Gospel" EP album was released which features five original songs written and performed by Lana Spooner-Jack in the Barbadian-owned genre Spouge. The music for the album was composed by mixing and mastering engineer Jeffrey Y. Grosvenor at his studio "Edge Cliff", in Gatineau, Quebec who added his own creativity by infusing African rhythms and Latin patterns. Each track on the album carries its own unique blend. The track "Come and Buy (Isaiah 55)" has a Meringue pattern that was altered to fit the Spouge rhythm; "In the Same Boat" has a Senagalese mbalax pattern. The congas are playing a Guaguancó pattern in "Drop by Drop"; and in the "Christmas I Believe In" track, the Spouge and the Cuban Bomba rhythms are played alternatively on the drum set. Very interesting combination! Of note, the song "Singing Over Me" is most likely the first Spouge song to be ever composed in the 3/4 time signature.
Jazz is a genre of music from the United States that reached Barbados by the end of the 1920s. The first major performer from the island wasLionel Gittens, who was followed byPercy Green,Maggie Goodridge andClevie Gittens. These bandleaders played a variety of music, includingswing, a kind of pop-jazz, Barbadian calypso andwaltzes. With little recorded music on the island, radio broadcasts such asWillis Conover's Voice of America, and the Associated-Rediffusion had a major influence.
As political awareness among the black majority on the island spread, so didbebop, a kind of jazz which was associated, in the United States, with social activism andAfrocentrism. The first Barbadian bebop musician from the island wasKeith Campbell, a pianist who had learned to play many styles while living in Trinidad during a time when American soldiers were stationed there, providing a ready market for bands that could play American music. Other musicians of this period includedErnie Small, a trumpeter and pianist, and bandleaderSt. Clare Jackman.[17]
In the 1950s,R&B androck and roll became popular on the island, and many jazz bands found themselves pushed aside. A wave of Guyanese musicians also appeared on the island, includingColin Dyall, a saxophonist who later joined the Police Band, and theEbe Gilkes Quartet. Though mainstream audiences were still listening to R&B and rock, modern jazz retained a small core of followers into the 1960s. The foundation of theBelair Jazz Club in Bridgetown in 1961 helped to keep this scene alive. With independence in 1966 came a focus on black Barbadian culture, and music like calypso, reggae and spouge, rather than the preoccupation with British standards of musical development.Calypso jazz arose during this period, pioneered by groups like theSchofield Pilgrim. The genre had developed by 1965, when original works such as "Jouvert Morning" and "Calypso Lament" were composed. Artists including the pianist Adrian Clarke became popular during the '60s as well.[17]
In the early 1970s, jazz fan and criticCarl Moore launched a project to keep jazz alive on the island, whileZanda Alexander's performance in Bridgetown in 1972 is said to be the first Caribbean jazz festival.Oscar Peterson's 1976 performance in Trinidad also inspired Barbadian musicians, as did the radio programmeJazz Jam, which was broadcast starting in the mid-'70s on theCaribbean Broadcast Corporation. In 1983, however, the Belair Jazz Club closed, and was not replaced by any long-term clubs. Later in the 1980s, jazz declined greatly in popularity, though The National Cultural foundation organized theInternational Barbados/Caribbean Jazz Festival, which after a brief hiatus due to lack of sponsorship was resurrected by Gilbert Rowe of GMR international tours. Other performances were organized by a group called theFriends of Jazz. More jazz calypso fusion musicians appeared on the scene during this period, including Arturo Tappin, Nicholas Brancker, Andre Woodvine and Raf Robertson.[17]
Rock music is alive and well in Barbados, there have been several bands through the years that perform alternative, rock and even metal music. Most recently the Alt/Rock/Metal band Standing Penance formed in 2009. The band continues to operate in present-day and is the only act of this genre to be signed to an American record label.
Academic study of Barbadian music remains limited. Some song collections and other activities have been conducted, but there remain significant holes in scholarship, such as the musics of recent immigrants from China and India, who presumably have brought with them styles ofIndian andChinese musics. Due to a lack of archaeological and historical records, the island's indigenous music is unknown. Since the 1970s, an increase in general interest in Barbadian culture has spurred greater study of music, and given an incentive to radio and television stations to create and maintain archives of cultural practices.[18]
On modern Barbados, oral transmission remains the primary mode ofmusic education, and there are few opportunities for most people to become formally educated in music of any kind. The elders of the island, who are the most educated in oral traditions, are held in high esteem due to their knowledge of folk culture.[19] Modern Barbados is home to several institutions of musical education. There are dedicated schools forballet:Dance Place and theLiz Mahon Dancers. A number of schools sponsor orchestras, steelbands and tuk bands, including theSt. Lucy Secondary School Steel Orchestra.[20] Music is a part of the curriculum for early childhood as well as primary and secondary education.[21] The Barbados Community College has an associate degree programme in music. However, theUniversity of the West Indies, though it has a campus on Barbados, does not offer degree programmes in music. As a matter of fact, only recently has the university started offering students the opportunity to pursue a minor in music.[22]
The mainmusic festival in Barbados isCrop Over, which is celebrated with song, dance,calypso tent competitions and parades, especially leading up to the first Monday in August,Kadooment Day. The crop over festival celebrates the end of thesugarcane harvest, and is inaugurated by the ritual delivery of the last of the harvest on a cart pulled by mules. The champion sugarcane workers are crowned King and Queen for the event.[23] In addition to crop over, music plays an important role in many other Barbadian holidays and festivals. The EasterOistins Fish Festival, for example features a street party with music[20][23] to celebrate the signing of theCharter of Barbados[23] and the fishing industry of the island,[20] and theHoletown Festival, which commemorates the arrival of the first settlers in 1627.
The annual DecemberClassical/Pops Festival comprises an all-star orchestra accompanied by pop and rock stars, Broadway performers, opera singers, and film composers as featured guests.[24]Opera,cabaret and sports are a major part of the EasterHolders Season.[23] On 30 November, the Barbadian Independence Day, military bands in parades play marches, calypsos and other popular songs. This is preceded for several weeks by theNational Independence Festival of Creative Arts.[23][25] The National Independence Festival of Creative Arts and Crop Over are two of the festivals sponsored by theNational Cultural Foundation (NCF); the other isCongaline, a recently organized street party that begins in April and ends onMay Day. NCF also assists with the Holers Opera Season, Oistins Fish Festival, Holetown Festival and theBarbados Jazz Festival.[20]
Other major musical institutions in Barbados include theBarbados Chamber Orchestra and theCavite Choral. There are also dance andballet groups known asDance National Afrique,Barbados Dance Theatre Company,Dance Strides,The Dance Place andDancing Africa.[20] The island's music industry is home to several recording studios, the largest beingBlue Wave, a 48-track system, andParadise Alley, a 24-track system. Others include Chambers' Studio, Gray Lizard Productions and Ocean Lab Studios.[20]
The Barbados Music Awards is an annual event that started in 2006, honoring both local and international artists voted by both the public and a 50-strong committee. Previous winners have includedWhitney Houston andMagnet Man.[26][27][28]