TheMuscovite–Lithuanian Wars (also known as theRusso-Lithuanian Wars or simplyMuscovite Wars orLithuanian Wars)[nb 1] were a series of wars between theGrand Duchy of Lithuania (in the later wars allied with theKingdom of Poland) and theGrand Duchy of Moscow, which was later unified with other Russian principalities to eventually become theTsardom of Russia. After several defeats at the hands ofIvan III andVasily III, the Lithuanians were increasingly reliant on Polish aid, which eventually became an important factor inthe creation of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Before the first series of wars in the 15th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania controlled vast stretches of Eastern European land, fromKiev toMozhaysk, following the collapse ofKievan Rus' after the Mongol invasions. Over the course of the wars, particularly in the 16th century, the Muscovites expanded their domain westwards, taking control of many principalities.[1][2]
In 1245, Alexandr Nevsky, the Prince of Novgorod, decided to go on a campaign after the Lithuanians attacked the border area and robbed many locals. He headed to Lithuania, where he freed all the prisoners and defeated the Lithuanians at Lake Zizicekoe. On the way back, the Lithuanians tried to take revenge, but were destroyed again.[3]
The Grand Duchy of Moscow and Lithuania had fought each other since the reign ofGediminas, who defeated a coalition ofRuthenian princes in theBattle on the Irpin River and seized Kiev, the former capital of Kievan Rus'. By the mid-14th century, an expanding Lithuania had absorbedChernigov andSeveria.Algirdas, the successor of Gediminas, allied with thePrincipality of Tver and undertook three expeditions againstMoscow, attempting to take advantage of the youth of theGrand Prince of Moscow,Dmitry Ivanovich, who nevertheless succeeded in fending off these encroachments.[citation needed]
The first intrusions of Lithuanian troops into the Moscow principality occurred in 1363. In 1368, Algirdas carried out the first major expedition against Moscow. Having devastated the Muscovite borderland, the Lithuanian prince routed the troops of thePrince of Starodub [ru] Simeon Dmitrievich Krapiva andPrince of Obolensk [ru]Konstantin Yurievich [ru]. On November 21, Algirdas routed the Moscow sentry troops on the river Trosna. However, he could not seize the Moscow Kremlin. The troops of Algirdas ruined the area around the city and captured a significant portion of the Muscovite population. In 1370, Algirdas made another expedition against Moscow. He ruined the area around Volok Lamskiy. On December 6, he besieged Moscow and started to devastate the surrounding area. Having received the message that Prince Vladimir Andreevich was coming to help Moscow, Algirdas returned to Lithuania. In 1372 Algirdas attacked the Moscow principality again and reachedLyubutsk. However, the Grand Prince of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich routed the sentry troops of Algirdas, and the Lithuanians concluded an armistice with Moscow. In 1375, Algirdas devastated theSmolensk principality.[4]
Some Muscovite elements wished to take over all of the land that was formerly of the Kievan Rus', most of which was now in the Lithuanian state. Furthermore, Moscow sought to expand its access to theBaltic Sea, an increasingly importanttrade route. Thus, the conflict between Lithuania and Moscow was only just beginning.[5][6]
Conflicts resumed during the reign of Dmitry's sonVasily I, who was married toSophia, the sole daughter of the Lithuanian Grand DukeVytautas the Great. In 1394, Vytautas devastated thePrincipality of Ryazan, leaving many settlements in ashes. In 1402, he quarrelled with his son-in-law over control of thePrincipality of Smolensk. After Vytautas captured his capital,Yury of Smolensk fled to Vasily's court and tried to enlist his assistance in regaining Smolensk. Vasily hesitated until Vytautas advanced onPskov. Alarmed by Lithuania's continuing expansion, Vasily sent an army to aid the Pskovians against his father-in-law. The Russian and Lithuanian armies met near theUgra River, but neither commander ventured to commit his troops to battle. A peace ensued, whereby Vytautas kept Smolensk.
Ivan III considered himself an heir to the fallenByzantine Empire and defender of theEastern Orthodox Church. He proclaimed himselfsovereign of all Russia,[7] and claimed patrimonial rights to the former lands of Kievan Rus'.[8] Such ambitions led to the steady growth of Muscovite territory and power. The supremacy of theGolden Horde, known as the "Mongol Yoke," ended in 1480 with the defeat ofAhmed Khan bin Küchük in theGreat Stand on the Ugra River. Moscow extended its influence to thePrincipality of Ryazan in 1456, annexed theNovgorod Republic in 1477, and annexed thePrincipality of Tver in 1483.[9] Further expansionist goals of Ivan III clashed with the Lithuanian interests.
Around 1486–1487, territories along the ill-defined Lithuanian–Muscovite border in the upper reaches of theOka River were under attack by Moscow[9] and its allyMeñli I Giray,Khan of Crimea.[10] Tensions continued to rise. In August 1492, without declaring war, Ivan III began large military actions: he captured and burnedMtsensk,Lyubutsk,Serpeysk, andMeshchovsk;[11] raidedMosalsk; and attacked the territory of the Dukes ofVyazma.[12] Orthodox nobles began switching sides to Moscow as it promised better protection from military raids and an end to religious discrimination byCatholic Lithuanians. Ivan III officially declared war in 1493, but the conflict soon ended.[12] Grand Duke of LithuaniaAlexander Jagiellon sent a delegation to Moscow to negotiate a peace treaty. An "eternal" peace treaty was concluded on February 5, 1494. The agreement marked the first Lithuanian territorial losses to Moscow: the Principality of Vyazma and a sizable region in the upper reaches of the Oka River.[8] The lost area was estimated to be approximately 87,000 km2 (34,000 sq mi).[13] A day before the treaty's official confirmation, Alexander Jagiellon was betrothed toHelena, daughter of Ivan III (the role of the groom was performed byStanislovas Kęsgaila as Alexander was in Poland).[14]
Hostilities were renewed in May 1500,[15] whenIvan III took advantage of a planned Polish–Hungarian campaign against theOttoman Empire:[8] While preoccupied with the Ottomans, Poland andHungary would not assist Lithuania. The pretext was the alleged religious intolerance toward the Orthodox in the Lithuanian court. Helena was forbidden by her father Ivan III to convert to Catholicism, which provided numerous opportunities for Ivan III, as the defender of all Orthodox, to interfere in Lithuanian affairs and rally Orthodox believers.[8]
The Muscovites promptly overran Lithuanian fortresses inBryansk,Vyazma,[15]Dorogobuzh,Toropets, andPutivl.[16] Local nobles, particularly theVorotynskys, often joined the Muscovite cause. Another attack came from the southeast intoKiev Voivodeship,Volhynia, andPodolia.[14] On July 14, 1500, the Lithuanians suffered a great defeat in theBattle of Vedrosha, and theLithuanian Grand HetmanKonstanty Ostrogski was captured. The defeat was one of the reasons for the proposedUnion of Mielnik between Poland and Lithuania.[17] In November 1501, the Lithuanians were defeated again in theBattle of Mstislavl. The Crimean Tatars destroyed the Golden Horde, a Lithuanian ally, when its capitalNew Sarai was conquered in 1502.[18]
In June 1501,John I Albert, King of Poland, died leaving his brotherAlexander Jagiellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania, the strongest candidate for the Polish throne. Alexander became preoccupied with the succession.[19] To counter religious accusations, Alexander attempted to establish achurch union between Catholics and Orthodox as it was envisioned at theCouncil of Florence – the Orthodox would retain their traditions but would accept the pope as their spiritual sovereign.[20] TheMetropolitan of Kiev and all Rus' agreed to such an arrangement, but Helena protested. Polish nobles, including BishopErazm Ciołek and CardinalFrederick Jagiellon, discussed the issue of royal divorce.[21]
In the meantime, the war continued, just not as successfully for Moscow. As Lithuanian forces arrived in the region, the Muscovite forces had to move slowly. Additionally, theLivonian Order, led byWolter von Plettenberg, joined the war as a Lithuanian ally.[16] The Livonian troops won theBattle of the Siritsa River in August 1501, besiegedPskov, and won theBattle of Lake Smolino in September 1502. In 1502, Ivan III organized a campaign to captureSmolensk, but the city withstood the siege as Muscovites chose a poor strategy and had insufficient artillery.[16] Peace negotiations began in mid-1502. Alexander askedVladislaus II of Hungary to act as themediator, and a six-year truce was concluded on theFeast of the Annunciation (March 25) in 1503.[22] The Grand Duchy of Lithuania lost approximately 210,000 square kilometres (81,000 sq mi),[13] or a third of its territory:Chernigov,Novgorod-Seversk,Starodub, and lands around the upperOka River.[8] Russian historian Matvei Kuzmich Liubavskii counted Lithuanian losses at 70volosts, 22 towns, and 13 villages.[23] The Lithuanians also acknowledged Ivan's title,sovereign of all Russia.[10][7]
HistorianEdvardas Gudavičius said: "The war of 1492–1494 was a kind of reconnaissance mission conducted by the united Russia. [The terms of] the ceasefire of 1503 showed the planned political aggression of Russia, its undoubted military superiority. The concept of the sovereign of all Russia, put forward by Ivan III, did not leave room for the existence of the Lithuanian state".[7]
During the Muscovite–Lithuanian War of 1503, theCrimean Tatar armiespillaged the Lithuania's southern towns ofSlutsk,Kletsk, andNyasvizh and even threatened the capital city ofVilnius. Alexander Jagiellon then ordered the construction of adefensive wall around his capital, which was completed in 1522.[24]
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In 1506, Alexander died.Vasili III, who succeeded his father Ivan III in 1505, advanced his bid for the Polish throne,[25] but Polish nobles choseSigismund I the Old, who was crowned both as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1507, Sigismund I sent envoys to Moscow to request the return of the territories acquired by the 1503 truce.[26] At the same time, KhanMeñli I Giray broke off his alliance with Moscow due to its campaign againstKazan.[25] Sigismund I received ayarlıq for the Muscovite territories ofNovgorod,Pskov, andRyazan.[25]
The war was intertwined with a rebellion byMichael Glinski,Court Marshal of Lithuania, a favorite of Alexander Jagiellon and a man of opportunity.[27] When Sigismund I the Old succeeded Alexander in 1506, he did not show the same favors to Glinski.Jan Zabrzeziński,Voivode of Trakai and Glinki's old political opponent, accused Glinski of treason – he alleged that Glinski poisoned Grand Duke Alexander and had ambitions of becoming king himself.[28] Glinski then organized a rebellion, murdered Zabrzeziński in February 1508, and declared himself the defender of the Orthodox faith (even though he was a Catholic of Mongol descent).[28] His followers unsuccessfully attacked theKaunas Castle in an attempt to liberate the prisoner Ahmad, Khan of theGreat Horde.[29] Glinski then established himself inTurov and contacted Vasili III. Glinski started retreating towards Moscow and attempted to captureMinsk,Slutsk,Mstsislaw, andKrychaw. He only managed to takeMazyr when his relative opened the gates.[29] NearOrsha, he joined with Muscovite forces but was defeated by Grand Hetman of Lithuania Konstanty Ostrogski.[30] This series of defeats demonstrated the rebellion, despite its claims to protect the rights of the Orthodox, was not supported by the general population and did not spread.[29] The war eventually ended with the inconclusive 'eternal peace treaty' on October 8, 1508, which maintained the territorial accords of the 1503 truce.[31]
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Despite the peace treaty, the relationship between the two countries remained tense. Sigismund I demanded Michael Glinski'sextradition for trial, while Vasili III demanded better treatment of his widowed sister Helena.[32] Vasili also discovered that Sigismund was paying KhanMeñli I Giray to attack the Grand Duchy of Moscow.[33] At the same time,Albert of Prussia became theGrand Master of the Teutonic Order and was unwilling to acknowledge Poland's suzerainty as required by theSecond Peace of Thorn (1466).[34] The tension eventually resulted in thePolish–Teutonic War (1519–1521) and alliedMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor with Vasili III.[33]
In December 1512, Moscow invaded the Grand Duchy of Lithuania seeking to captureSmolensk, a major trading center.[35] Their first six- and four-week sieges in 1513 failed,[36] but thecity fell in July 1514.[37] PrinceVasily Nemoy Shuysky was left as viceregent in Smolensk.[37] This angered Glinski, who threatened to rejoin Sigismund I but was imprisoned by the Russians.[38]
Russia then suffered a series of defeats in the field. In 1512, Grand Hetman of Lithuania, Konstanty Ostrogski, ravagedSeveria and defeated a 6,000-strong Russian force. On 8 September 1514, the Russians suffered a major defeat at theBattle of Orsha.[39] Despite their victory, his army was unable to move quickly enough to recapture Smolensk.[40] In 1518, Russian forces were beaten during thesiege of Polotsk,[41] when according to legend the Lithuanian forces were inspired by the sight of theirpatron saint,Saint Casimir. The Russians invaded Lithuania again in 1519, raiding Orsha, Mogilev, Minsk, Vitebsk, and Polotsk.[42]
By 1521, Sigismund had defeated the Grand Master and allied with the Kazan and Crimean Tatar hordes against Moscow.[43] Khan of Crimea,Mehmed I Giray carried out a ruinous attack on the Moscow principality, resulting in a commitment from the grand prince to pay tribute.[44] The Lithuanian troops led by Dashkovich participated in the attack and tried to takeRyazan.[45]
In 1522, a treaty was signed that called for a five-year truce, no prisoner exchange, and for Russia to retain control of Smolensk.[46] The truce was subsequently extended to 1534.[47]
Upon Vasily's death in 1533, his son and heir,Ivan IV, was only three years old. His mother,Elena Glinskaya, acted as the regent and engaged in power struggles with other relatives and boyars.[48] The Polish–Lithuanian monarch decided to take advantage of the situation and demanded the return of territories conquered by Vasily III.[49] In the summer of 1534, Grand HetmanJerzy Radziwiłł and the Tatars devastated the area around Chernigov, Novgorod Seversk, Radogoshch, Starodub, and Briansk.[43] In October 1534, a Muscovite army under the command of Prince Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky, Prince Nikita Obolensky, and Prince VasilyShuisky invaded Lithuania, advancing as far as Vilnius and Naugardukas, and built a fortress onLake Sebezh the following year, before being stopped.[50] The Lithuanian army under Hetman Radziwill, Andrei Nemirovich, Polish HetmanJan Tarnowski, and Semen Belsky launched a powerful counterattack and tookGomel and Starodub.[51]
In 1536, the fortressSebezh defeated Nemirovich's Lithuanian forces when they tried to besiege it, and then the Muscovites attacked Liubech, razedVitebsk, and built fortresses atVelizh and Zavoloche.[51] Lithuania and Russia negotiated a five-year truce, withoutprisoner exchange, in which Homel stayed under the king's control, while Moscow kept Sebezh and Zavoloche.[52]
| Year | Area (approximate) | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| 1427 | 930,000 km2 (360,000 sq mi) | Largest extent |
| 1438 | Lost 21,000 km2 (8,100 sq mi) | Lost westernPodolia to Poland during theLithuanian Civil War |
| 1485 | Lost 88,000 km2 (34,000 sq mi) | LostYedisan to theCrimean Khanate |
| 1494 | Lost 87,000 km2 (34,000 sq mi) | First war with Russia |
| 1503 | Lost 210,000 km2 (81,000 sq mi) | Second war with Russia |
| 1522 | Lost 56,000 km2 (22,000 sq mi) | Fourth war with Russia; includedSmolensk |
| 1537 | Gained 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi) | Fifth war with Russia |
| 1561 | Gained 85,000 km2 (33,000 sq mi) | GainedDuchy of Livonia by theTreaty of Vilnius (1561) |
| 1569 | Lost 170,000 km2 (66,000 sq mi) | Transferred Ukrainian territories to Poland by theUnion of Lublin |
| 1582 | Lost 40,000 km2 (15,000 sq mi) | Livonian War |
| 1583 | 365,000 km2 (141,000 sq mi) | Territory after the Livonian War |
In 1547, theTsardom of Russia was officially proclaimed whenIvan IV was crowned astsar of all Russia. The tsar sought to gather the ethnicallyRuthenian lands of the former Kievan Rus', engaging with other powers around theBaltic Sea in theLivonian War.
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During the reign ofSigismund II Augustus in Poland and Lithuania, Tsar Ivan IV invadedLivonia, first in 1558 when theLivonian Knights sought an alliance with Poland and Lithuania; the Poles and Lithuanians were able to defend only southern Livonia. Lithuania and Poland were initially allied withDenmark and fought against the Tsardom of Russia allied withSweden; after several years the coalitions changed and Poland–Lithuania allied themselves with Sweden against Russia and Denmark. Eventually, the 1570 ceasefire divided Livonia between the participants, with Lithuania controllingRiga and Russians expanding access to the Baltic Sea by taking hold ofNarva.
The Lithuanians felt increasingly pressured by the Tsar; furthermore, Lithuanian lesser nobility pressured the Grand Duke and magnates for gaining the same rights as Polish nobility (szlachta), i.e. theGolden Freedoms. Eventually, in 1569, after Sigismund II Augustus transferred significant territories of the Grand Duchy to Poland and after months of hard negotiations, Lithuanians partially accepted Polish demands and entered in alliance with theUnion of Lublin, forming thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577, Ivan IV took advantage of the Commonwealth's internal strife (calledthe war against Danzig in Polish historiography), and, during the reign ofStefan Batory in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, except for Riga and Reval (nowTallinn). That war would last from 1577 to 1582.
Stefan Batory replied with a series of three offensives against Russia, trying to cut off Livonia from the main Russian territories. During his first offensive in 1579 with 22,000 men, he retookPolatsk; Polish–Lithuanian troops also devastatedSmolensk region, andSeveria up to Starodoub.[54][page needed]. During the second, in 1580, with a 29,000-strong army, Stefan Batory took Velizh, Usvyat,[54]Velikiye Luki. In 1581 the Lithuanians burnt downStaraya Russa,[54] and with a 100,000-strong army Stefan Batory started theSiege of Pskov but failed to take the fortress. The prolonged and inconclusive siege led to negotiations, which with the aid ofpapal legateAntonio Possevino ended in thepeace of Jam Zapolski in which the Tsar renounced his claims toLivonia andPolotsk but conceded no core Russian territories. The peace lasted for a quarter of a century, until the Commonwealth's forcesinvaded Russia in 1605.
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