Musar literature isdidacticJewish ethicalliterature which describes virtues and vices and the path towards character improvement. This literature gives the name to theMusar movement, in 19th century Lithuania, but this article considers such literature more broadly.
Musar literature is often described as "ethical literature." ProfessorGeoffrey Claussen describes it as "Jewish literature that discusses virtue and character."[1] ProfessorsIsaiah Tishby andJoseph Dan have described it as "prose literature that presents to a wide public views, ideas, and ways of life in order to shape the everyday behavior, thought, and beliefs of this public."[2] Musar literature traditionally depicts the nature of moral and spiritual perfection in a methodical way. It is "divided according to the component parts of the ideal righteous way of life; the material is treated methodically – analyzing, explaining, and demonstrating how to achieve each moral virtue (usually treated in a separate chapter or section) in the author's ethical system."[3]
Musar literature can be distinguished from other forms ofJewish ethical literature such asaggadic narrative andhalakhic literature.
Ethical monotheism originated in early Judaism, and along with it came the highly didacticethics in the Torah and later works.
Mishlei is commonly regarded as a musar classic[according to whom?] in its own right and is arguably the first truesefer musar. In fact, the Hebrew wordmusar (מוסר, 'discipline'), being the eponymous name for the literature, stems from the term's extensive use in the biblical book.
An example from theTanakh is the earliest known text of the positive form of the famous "Golden Rule":[4]
You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your kinsfolk. Love your neighbor as yourself: I am the LORD.
Hillel the Elder (c. 110 BCE – 10 CE)[6] taught the verse as the most important of theTorah. Once, he was challenged by ager toshav who asked to be converted under the condition that the Torah be explained to him while he stood on one foot. Hillel accepted him as a candidate forconversion to Judaism, but, drawing onLeviticus 19:18, briefed the man:
What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow: this is the whole Torah; the rest is the explanation; go and learn.
Pirkei Avot is a compilation ofJewish ethics and related teachings the Rabbis of theMishnaic period and part ofdidacticJewish ethical musar literature. Because of its contents, it is also calledEthics of the Fathers. The teachings ofPirkei Avot appear in the MishnaictractateAvot, the second-to-last tractate in the order ofNezikin in the Mishnah.Pirkei Avot is unique in that it is the only tractate of the Mishnah dealing solely with ethical and moral principles; there is littlehalakha found inPirkei Avot.
Medieval works of Musar literature were composed by a range of rabbis and others, including rationalist philosophers and adherents of Kabbalistic mysticism.Joseph Dan has argued that medieval Musar literature reflects four different approaches: thephilosophical approach; the standardrabbinic approaches; the approach ofChassidei Ashkenaz; and theKabbalistic approach.[3]
Philosophical works of Musar include:
Rabbinic Musar literature came as a reaction to philosophical literature, and tried to show that the Torah and standardrabbinic literature taught about the nature of virtue and vice without recourse to Aristotelian or other philosophical concepts. Classic works of this sort include
Similar works were produced by rabbis who wereKabbalists but whose Musar writings did not bear a kabbalistic character:Nahmanides'Sha'ar ha-Gemul, which focuses on various categories of just and wicked people and their punishments in the world to come; and RabbiBahya ben Asher'sKad ha-Kemah.
Chassidei Ashkenaz (literally "the Pious of Germany") was a Jewish movement in the 12th century and 13th century founded by RabbiJudah the Pious (Rabbi Yehuda HeChassid) ofRegensburg, Germany, which was concerned with promoting Jewish piety and morality. The most famous work of Musar literature produced by this school wasThe Book of the Pious (Sefer Hasidim).[3]
ExplicitlyKabbalistic mystical works of Musar literature includeTomer Devorah (The Palm Tree of Deborah) byMoses ben Jacob Cordovero,Reshit Chochmah byEliyahu de Vidas, andKav ha-Yashar byTzvi Hirsch Kaidanover.
Literature in the genre of Musar literature continued to be written by modern Jews from a variety of backgrounds.
Mesillat Yesharim is a Musar text published in Amsterdam byMoshe Chaim Luzzatto in the 18th century. It is perhaps the most important work of Musar literature of the post-medieval period. TheVilna Gaon commented that he could not find a superfluous word in the first seven chapters of the work and stated that he would have traveled to meet the author and learn from his ways if he'd still been alive.
According toJulia Phillips Cohen, summarizing the work of Matthias B. Lehmann on Musar literature inOttomanSephardic society:
Beginning in the eighteenth century, a number of Ottoman rabbis had undertaken the task of fighting the ignorance they believed was plaguing their communities by producing works of Jewish ethics (musar) inJudeo-Spanish (also known as Ladino). This development was inspired in part by a particular strain withinJewish mysticism (LurianicKabbalah) which suggested that every Jew would necessarily play a role in the mending of the world required for redemption. The spread of ignorance among their coreligionists thus threatened to undo the proper order of things. It was with this in mind that these Ottoman rabbis--all capable of publishing in the more highly esteemedHebrew language of their religious tradition--chose to write in their vernacular instead. While they democratized rabbinic knowledge by translating it for the masses, these "vernacular rabbis" (to use Matthias Lehmann's term) also attempted to instill in their audiences the sense that their texts required the mediation of individuals with religious training. Thus, they explained that common people should gather together to read their books inmeldados, or study sessions, always with the guidance of someone trained in the study ofJewish law.[7]
Among the most popular works of Musar literature produced in Ottoman society was Elijah ha-Kohen'sShevet Musar, first published inLadino in 1748.[8]Pele Yoetz by RabbiEliezer Papo (1785–1826) was another exemplary work of this genre.[9]
In Europe, leaders of theHaskalah made significant contributions to Musar literature.[10][11]Naphtali Hirz Wessely wrote a Musar text titledSefer Ha-Middot (Book of Virtues) in approximately 1786.Menachem Mendel Lefin ofSatanov wrote a text titledCheshbon Ha-Nefesh (Moral Accounting) in 1809, based in part on the ethical program described in the autobiography ofBenjamin Franklin.[12]
One form of literature in theHasidic movement was tracts collecting and instructing mystical-ethical practices. These includeTzavaat HaRivash ("Testament of RabbiYisroel Baal Shem") and Tzetl Koton byElimelech of Lizhensk, a seventeen-point program on how to be a good Jew. RabbiNachman of Breslov's Sefer ha-Middot is aHasidic classic of Musar literature.[1]
The "Musar letter" of theVilna Gaon, an ethical will by anopponent of the Hasidic movement, is regarded by some as a classic of Musar literature.[13] Many of the writings ofYisrael Meir Kagan have also been described as Musar literature.[14]
The modernMusar movement, beginning in the 19th century, encouraged the organized study of medieval Musar literature to an unprecedented degree while producing its own Musar literature. Significant Musar writings were made by leaders of the movement, such as RabbisIsrael Salanter,Simcha Zissel Ziv,Yosef Yozel Horwitz, andEliyahu Dessler.[1] The movement established musar learning as a regular part of the curriculum in theLithuanianYeshiva world, acting as a bulwark against contemporary forces of secularism.
Musar literature has been composed by Reform rabbis includingRuth Abusch-Magder, noted for her writing on humility, andKaryn Kedar, noted for her writing on forgiveness.[1]
Musar literature has been composed by Conservative rabbis, includingAmy Eilberg (noted for her writing on curiosity and courage) andDanya Ruttenberg (noted for her writing on curiosity).[1]Rabbi Ira F. Stone, founder of the Center for Contemporary Mussar, is the author of _A Responsible Life; Thje Spiritual Path of Mussar_, as well as a commentary on the classic Mussar texts Mesillat Yesharim and Tomer Devorah.
Musar literature has been composed byReconstructionist rabbis, includingSusan Schnur (noted for her writing on forgiveness),Sandra Lawson (noted for her writing on curiosity),Rebecca Alpert (noted for her writing on humility), andMordecai Kaplan (noted for his writing on humility).[1] Schnur's writings show how gender matters in discussion of forgiveness as a virtue.[1]
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