Mummers' plays arefolk plays performed by troupes of amateur actors, traditionally all male, known asmummers orguisers (also by local names such asrhymers,pace-eggers,soulers,tipteerers,wrenboys, andgaloshins). Historically, mummers' plays consisted of informal groups of costumed community members that visited from house to house on various holidays.[1][2][3] The modern term refers especially to a play in which a number of characters are called on stage, two of whom engage in a combat, the loser being revived by a doctor character. This play is sometimes found associated with asword dance though both also exist in Britain independently.
Plays may be performed in the street or during visits to houses andpubs. They are generally performed seasonally, often atChristmas,Easter or onPlough Monday, more rarely onHalloween orAll Souls' Day, and often with a collection of money. The practice may be compared with other customs such as those of Halloween,Bonfire Night,wassailing,pace egging andfirst-footing at new year.[4]
Although the termmummer has been in use since the Middle Ages, no scripts or details survive from that era and the term may have been used loosely to describe performers of several different kinds. The earliest evidence of mummers' plays as they are known today is from the mid- to late 18th century. Mummers' plays should not be confused with the earliermystery plays.
Mumming spread from theBritish Isles to a number of former British colonies. Ireland has its own unique history of mummers' play, and adopted the term for the tradition from the English language.[5]
The wordmummer is sometimes explained to derive fromMiddle Englishmum ("silent") orGreekmommo ("mask"), but is more likely to be associated withEarly New High Germanmummer ("disguised person", attested inJohann Fischart) andvermummen ("to wrap up, to disguise, to mask one's face"),[6] which itself is derived from or came to be associated withmummen (first attested already inMiddle High German by a prohibition inMühlhausen,Thuringia, 1351)[7] andmum(en)schanz, (Hans Sachs,Nuremberg, 16th century), these latter words originally referring to a game or throw (schanz) of dice.[8] Ingrid Brainard argues that the English word "mummer" is ultimately derived from the Greek nameMomus, a god of mockery and scoff.[9]
Mummers' and guisers' plays were formerly performed throughout much of English-speakingGreat Britain andIreland, spreading to other English-speaking parts of the world includingNewfoundland andSaint Kitts and Nevis. There are a few surviving traditional teams of mummers inEngland and Ireland, but there have been many revivals of mumming, often associated nowadays withmorris andsword dance groups.[10] These performances are comparable in some respects with others throughoutEurope.
Broadly comic performances, the most common type features a doctor who has amagicpotion able to resuscitate the vanquished character. Early scholars of folk drama, influenced byJames Frazer'sThe Golden Bough, tended to view these plays as descendants of pre-Christian fertility ritual, but modern researchers have subjected this interpretation to criticism.[11]
The characters may be introduced in a series of short speeches (usually in rhyming couplets) or they may introduce themselves in the course of the play's action. The principal characters, presented in a wide variety of manners, are a hero, most commonlySaint George, King George, or Prince George (butRobin Hood in theCotswolds and Galoshin in Scotland), and his chief opponent (known as the Turkish Knight in southern England, but named Slasher elsewhere), and a quack Doctor who comes to restore the dead man to life. Other characters include:Old Father Christmas, who introduces some plays, the Fool andBeelzebub or Little Devil Doubt (who demands money from the audience).
In Ynysmeudwy nearSwansea groups of four boys dressed as Crwmpyn (hunchback) John, Indian Dark, Robin Hood and Doctor Brown took the play from house to house on Bonfire Night and were rewarded with money.[12]
Despite the frequent presence of Saint George, theDragon rarely appears although it is often mentioned. A dragon seems to have appeared in theRevesby Ploughboys' Play in 1779, along with a "wild worm" (possibly mechanical), but it had no words. In the few instances where the dragon appears and speaks its words can be traced back to a Cornish script published byWilliam Sandys in 1833.
In 1418 a law was passed in London forbidding in the city "mumming, plays, interludes or any other disguisings with any feigned beards, painted visors, deformed or coloured visages in any wise, upon pain of imprisonment".
Mumming was a way of raising money and the play was taken round the big houses. Most Southern English versions end with the entrance of "Little Johnny Jack his wife and family on his back". Johnny, traditionally played by the youngest mummer in the group, first asks for food and then more urgently for money. Johnny Jack's wife and family were either dolls in a model house or sometimes a picture.
Mummers and "guisers" (performers in disguise) can be traced back at least to 1296, when the festivities for the marriage of Edward I's daughter at Christmas included "mummers of the court" along with "fiddlers and minstrels".[13] These "revels" and "guisings" may have been an early form ofmasque and the early use of the term "mumming" appears to refer specifically to a performance of dicing with the host for costly jewels, after which the mummers would join the guests for dancing, an event recorded in 1377 when 130 men on horseback went "mumming" to the Prince of Wales, laterRichard II.[14][15]
According to German and Austrian sources dating from the 16th century, during carnival persons wearing masks used to make house-to-house visits offering amum(en)schanz, a game of dice. This custom was practised by commoners as well as nobility. OnShrove Tuesday of 1557Albert V, Duke of Bavaria went to visit thearchbishop of Salzburg and played a game of dice with him.[8] A similar incident, involving an Englishman, is attested for the French court by the German count and chronicler Froben Christoph von Zimmern: during carnival 1540, while the French kingFrancis I was residing atAngers, an Englishman (ain Engellender) wearing a mask and accompanied by other masked persons paid a visit to the king and offered him amomschanz (a game of dice).[16]
Whilemum(en)schanz was played not only by masked persons, and not only during carnival, the German wordmummenschanz nevertheless took on the meaning "costume, masquerade" and, by the 18th century, had lost its association with gambling and dice. Other than this association there is no clear evidence linking these late medieval and early modern customs with English mumming.
Although there are earlier hints (such as a fragmentary speech by St George fromExeter, Devon, which may date from 1737, although published in 1770), the earliest complete text of the "Doctor" play appears to be an undatedchapbook ofAlexander and the King of Egypt, published by John White (d. 1769) inNewcastle upon Tyne between 1746 and 1769. The fullest early version of a mummers' play text is probably the 1779 "Morrice Dancers'" play from Revesby, Lincolnshire. The full text ("A petygree of the Plouboys or modes dancers songs") is available online.[17][18] Although performed at Christmas, this text is a forerunner of the East Midlands Plough Monday (see below) plays. A text fromIslip, Oxfordshire, dates back to 1780.[19]
A play text which had, until recently, been attributed to Mylor in Cornwall (much quoted in early studies of folk plays, such asThe Mummers Play by R. J. E. Tiddy – published posthumously in 1923 – andThe English Folk-Play (1933) by E. K. Chambers) has now been shown, by genealogical and other research, to have originated inTruro, Cornwall, around 1780.[20][21] A play from an unknown locality inCheshire, close to the border withWales, dates from before 1788.[22]
Chapbook versions ofThe Christmas Rhime or The Mummer's Own Book were published inBelfast, c.1803-1818.[23] A mummers' play from Ballybrennan,County Wexford, Ireland, dating from around 1817–18, was published in 1863.[24] It is from the 19th century that the bulk of recorded texts derive.
Mumming, at any rate in the South of England, had its heyday at the end of the 19th century and the earliest years of the 20th century. Most traditional mummers groups (known as "sides") stopped with the onset of the First World War, but not before they had come to the attention of folklorists. In the second half of the 20th century many groups were revived, mostly by folk music and dance enthusiasts. The revived plays are frequently taken around inns and public houses around Christmas time and the begging done for some charity rather than for the mummers themselves.
Although the main season for mumming throughout Britain was around Christmas, some parts of England had plays performed aroundAll Souls' Day (known asSouling orsoul-caking) orEaster (Pace-egging orPeace-egging). In north-eastern England the plays are traditionally associated withSword dances orRapper dances.
In some parts of Britain and Ireland the plays are traditionally performed on or nearPlough Monday. These are therefore known asPlough plays and the performers asPlough-jags,Plough-jacks,Plough-bullocks,Plough-stots orPlough witches. The Plough plays of theEast Midlands of England (principallyLincolnshire andNottinghamshire) feature several different stock characters (including a Recruiting Sergeant, Tom Fool, Dame Jane and the "Lady bright and gay"). Tradition has it that ploughboys would take their plays from house to house and perform in exchange for money or gifts, some teams pulling a plough and threatened to plough up people's front gardens or path if they did not pay up. Examples of the play have been found in Denmark since the late 1940s.
AroundSheffield and in nearby parts of northernDerbyshire andNottinghamshire a dramatised version of the well-knownDerby Ram folksong, known as theDerby Tup (another word for ram), has been performed, since at least 1895, by teams of boys. The brief play is usually introduced by two characters, an old man and an old woman ("Me and our owd lass"). The Tup was usually represented by a boy, bent over forwards, covered with a sack, and carrying a broomstick with a rough, wooden sheep's head attached. The Tup was killed by a Butcher, and sometimes another boy held a basin to catch the "blood". There is a Sheffield version where the Tup is killed and then brought back to life by the Doctor. This is the main play performed by the Northstow Mummers based inCambridge.[citation needed]
An'Owd 'Oss play (Old Horse), another dramatised folksong in Yorkshire, was also known from roughly the same area, in the late 19th[25] and early 20th centuries,[26] around Christmas. The custom persisted until at least 1970, when it was performed in private houses and pubs inDore onNew Year's Day.[27] A group of men accompanied a hobby horse (either a wooden head, with jaws operated by strings, or a real horse's skull, painted black and red, mounted on a wooden pole so that its snapping jaws could be operated by a man stooping under a cloth to represent the horse's body) and sang a version ofThe Old Horse orPoor Old Horse, which describes a decrepit horse that is close to death.[citation needed]
InLincolnshire, similar traditions were known as 'plough plays', many of these were collected by the folkloristEthel Rudkin.[28]
All known Irish play scripts are in English though Irish custom and tradition have permeated mumming ceremony with famous characters from Irish history: Colmcille, Brian Boru, Art MacMorrough, Owen Roe O'Neill, Sarsfield and Wolfe Tone. The mummers are similar but distinct from the other traditions such aswrenboys. The main characters are usually the Captain,Beelzebub,Saint Patrick, Prince George,Oliver Cromwell, The Doctor and Miss Funny.[11]
The tradition of the mummers' play is still present in areas of Ireland includingCounty Fermanagh,County Tyrone,[29]County Wexford, and theFingal area ofCounty Dublin. The practice was discouraged by theCatholic Church in the early 20th century, but appears to have continued despite this condemnation. In 1935, the Carne Mummers were arrested for their street performance under the Dance Halls Act.[30] In Fingal, the modern form of mummering was re-established by the Fingal Mummers in the 1980s,[31] and is now documented as part of Ireland'sNational Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage. A festival is held each October in Fingal by a local school, Scoil Seamus Ennis, which has hosted mummering troupes from across Ireland and England.[32] The group,The Armagh Rhymers, have been performing mummers' plays and other performances inspired by the traditional form since the 1970s.[33]
TheKirk Session records ofElgin name women who danced at New Year 1623 to the sound of a trumpet. Six men, described as guisers or "gwysseris" performed asword dance wearing masks and visors covering their faces in the churchyard and in the courtyard of a house. They were fined 40 shillings each. In 1604 Tyberius Winchester was fined for "guising" through the town of Elgin with a pillowcase as a disguise and William Pattoun was accused of singing "hagmonayis". In January 1600, Alexander Smith's daughter was accused of guising in Elgin dressed as a man.[34] This kind of dance and disguised "guising" through the town can be traced in various records.[35] WhenAnne of Denmark came to Scotland in May 1590, twelve Edinburgh men performed a sword dance in costume with white shoes and floral hats, and other performed a Highland dance in costume.[36][37]James VI himself wore a costume with a Venetian mask and danced at a wedding atTullibardine in June 1591.[38]
In 1831,Sir Walter Scott published a rhyme which had been used as a prelude to thePapa Stour Sword Dance,Shetland in around 1788.[39] It features seven characters, Saint George, Saint James, Saint Dennis, Saint David, Saint Patrick, Saint Anthony and Saint Andrew, theSeven Champions of Christendom. All the characters are introduced in turn by the Master, St. George. There is no real interplay between the characters and no combat or cure, so it is more of a "calling-on song" than a play. Some of the characters dance solos as they are introduced, then all dance a longsword dance together, which climaxes with their swords being meshed together to form a "shield". They each dance with the shield upon their head, then it is laid on the floor and they withdraw their swords to finish the dance. St. George makes a short speech to end the performance.
In the 1950s, A.L. Taylor collected surviving fragments of seasonal Scottish folk plays he described as "Galoshens" or "Galatians".[40] Later,Emily Lyle recorded the oral history of fourteen people from the lowlands of Scotland recounting their memories of "Galoshin" dramas. Galoshin is the hero in a drama in the tradition of Robin Hood plays.[41] Building on this research,Brian Hayward investigated the geographical distribution of the play in Scotland, and publishedGaloshins: the Scottish Folk Play, which includes several maps showing the locations where each version was performed. These are or were largely across the Central Belt of Scotland, with a strange and unexplained "outlier" at Ballater in Aberdeenshire.[42] The Meadows Mummers are an all-female troupe who perform at local festivals inspired by both these writers, and by folk play workshops at theScottish Storytelling Centre. In 2019 they performed at the Scots Music School inBarga, Italy.[43][44]
First recorded in 1832, the ManxWhite Boys play features a song and a sword dance at its conclusion.[45] Although the key traditional characters include St. George, St. Patrick and others, modern versions frequently adapt the play to contemporary political concerns.[46] Characters featured since the 1990s include Sir MHK, Sir Banker, Expert and Estate Agent.[46] A a book on the White Boys compiled and edited by Stephen Miller was published in 2010;"Who wants to see the White Boys act?" The Mumming Play in the Isle of Man: A Compendium of Sources.[47] It continues to be performed on the Saturday before Christmas each year.
 | This sectiondoes notcite anysources. Please helpimprove this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved.(October 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
InPhiladelphia every New Year's Day there is aMummers' Day Parade that showcases pageantry and creativity. This grand parade has history in the old world, and performances in Philadelphia began in the year 1900. The parade traces back to mid-17th-century roots, blending elements from Swedish, Finnish, Irish, English, German, and other European heritages, as well as African heritage. The parade is related to the Mummers' Play tradition from Britain and Ireland. Revivals of this tradition are still celebrated annually in South Gloucestershire, England on Boxing Day along with other locations in England and in parts of Ireland on St. Stephen's Day and also in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador around Christmas.
Mumming was used as a means of entertaining at feasts and functions, particular mention is made of one feast where 150 torch bearers lead the same number of mummers in, who would do acrobatics in a variety of costumes, including animal costumes.
At certain feast days (e.g. saint's days), a lot of the populace would put on masks, and in practices that vary with geography, celebrate the day. One practice in example was for a group to visit a local manor, and 'sing out' the lord. If the lord couldn't match verse for verse the singing group (alternating verses), then that lord would have to provide amenities.[citation needed]
The formation of roving mumming groups became a popular practice so common it became associated with criminal or lewd behaviour, as the use of masks allowed anonymity; in the time of Henry VIII, it was banned for a period.[citation needed]
On documents such as receipts and bills from the late medieval, come details of mumming parties organised by English monarchs, Henry VIII being known for taking his court mumming incognito. Later, Henry would ban social mumming, and bring the 'masque' form of entertainment to England.
"Mummering" is a Newfoundland custom that dates back to the time of the earliest settlers who came from England and Ireland. It shares common antecedents with the Mummers' Play tradition, but in its current form is primarily a house-visiting tradition. Sometime during the Twelve Days of Christmas, usually on the night of the "Old Twelfth" (17 January; equivalent to 6 January in the oldJulian calendar), people would disguise themselves with old articles of clothing and visit the homes of their friends and neighbours. They would at times cover their faces with a hood, scarf, mask or pillowcase to keep their identity hidden. In keeping with the theme of an inversion of rules, and of disguise, crossdressing was a common strategy, and men would sometimes dress as women and women as men. Travelling from house to house, some mummers would carry their own musical instruments to play, sing and dance in the houses they visited. The host and hostess of these 'mummers parties' would serve a small lunch which could consist of Christmas cake with a glass of syrup or blueberry or dogberry wine. Some mummers would drink a Christmas "grog" before they leave each house, a drink of an alcoholic beverage such as rum or whiskey. One important part of the custom was a guessing game to determine the identity of the visitors. As each mummer was identified, they would uncover their faces, but if their true identity is not guessed they did not have to unmask. The Mummers Festival takes place throughout December and includes workshops on how to makehobby horses andwren sticks.[48][49]
Mummers' plays were performed inPhiladelphia in the 18th century as part of a wide variety of working-class street celebrations around Christmas. By the early 19th century, it coalesced with two otherNew Year customs, shooting firearms, and thePennsylvania German custom of "belsnickling" (adults in masks questioning children about whether they had been good during the previous year). Through the 19th century, large groups of disguised (often inblackface) working class young men roamed the streets on New Year's Day, organizing "riotous" processions, firing weapons into the air, and demanding free drinks in taverns, and generally challenging middle and upper-class notions of order and decorum. Unable to suppress the custom, by the 1880s the city government began to pursue a policy of co-option, requiring participants to join organized groups with designated leaders who had to apply for permits and were responsible for their groups actions. By 1900, these groups formed part of an organized, city-sanctioned parade with cash prizes for the best performances.[50] About 15,000 mummers now perform in the parade each year. They are organized into four distinct types of troupes: Comics, Fancies,String Bands, and Fancy Brigades. All dress in elaborate costumes. There is aMummers Museum dedicated to the history of Philadelphia Mummers.
Thomas Hardy's novelThe Return of the Native (1878) has a fictional depiction of a mummers' play on Edgon Heath. It was based on the author's childhood experiences.
Leo Tolstoy's novelWar and Peace (1869) has a depiction of mummers, includingNikolai Rostov,Natasha Rostova, andSonya Rostova, making house-to-house visits. They are depicted as a boisterous crowd dancing and laughing in outrageous costumes where men are dressed as women and women are dressed as men.[51]
Ngaio Marsh's detective storyOff with His Head (1957) is set around a particular version of the Guiser play / Sword Dance, the fictional "Dance of the Five Sons", performed on the "Sword Wednesday" of theWinter Solstice. The characters used in that dance are describes in great detail, in particular "The Fool", "The Hobbyhorse" and "The teaser" (called "Betty").[52]
George RR Martin'sA Song of Ice and Fire often features and references mummers, with characters regularly referring to a comical, bungled, unbelievable, or manufactured event as a "mummer's farce".[53][54]
There are several traditional songs associated with mumming plays; the "calling-on" songs of sword dance teams are related:
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Mummers' plays proper
Other related customs
