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Mukokuseki (Japanese:無国籍) is theJapanese term for "statelessness" or "nationlessness".[1][2][3] The term is sometimes used to describe fictional characters depicted without a concreteethnicity or nationality, particularly inanime andmanga. It is commonly invoked in criticism ofJapanese media. It is thought to be particularly significant in the context of foreign influences on Japanese entertainment properties as well as the subsequent marketing of such properties towards non-Japanese audiences.[4]
Notable examples ofmukokuseki characters includeHello Kitty,[4]Light Yagami,[5] andMario,[6] and the term has also been applied to writers likeMurakami Haruki akin to aliterary genre.[7]
Implications of the term in visual media can vary considerably between artstyles,[5] either employing culturally neutral elements orhybridizing multiple disparate cultural influences.[4][8] One author nonetheless argued that "[o]n closer inspection [...] the communication of cultural markers and characteristics is far more intricate than the mere display of Japanese facial features."[9]
Asian studies scholars Birlea Oana-Maria and Christine Yano analyzedmukokuseki as closely related to the aesthetic ofkawaii, an abstract concept of "cuteness" or "loveliness" considered central to the marketing and international appeal of Japanese artistic and commercial properties likeHello Kitty.[4][10] Yano identified the cosmopolitan success of Hello Kitty in the 1970s as a trailblazer of themukokuseki style and an indicator of a marketing strategy she coined asPinkGlobalization, but argued that rather than separating the subject from established ethnic categoriesmukokuseki was instead "imbued with Euro-American culture or race", summarized by a commentator as a discourse in which "anything but awhite, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant is considered 'ethnic culture' by most people."[12]
One postulated reason for the rise ofmukokuseki as a style is the desire to market Japanese products worldwide without making it obvious that they are Japanese, due to enduringanti-Japanese sentiment in the United States as well as many neighboring Asian countries, particularly as a result ofJapanese war crimes in World War II.[13] Themukokuseki fiction of Murakami was noted as transgressing historic divisions like those between Japan and China, achieving a level of popular culture ubiquity in both the mainland and Taiwan and becoming the first Japanese author to be widely considered in the latter following a diplomatic row between Japan and the Republic of China over Japan's 1972recognition of the People's Republic of China.[7] Murakami, a self-described "black sheep" of the Japanese literary establishment,[14] has made similar headway in the historically hostile South Korea and is credited with inspiring a trans-national movement of other East Asian writers across the region.[7]
In addition to the increased international appeal of culturally neutral properties, Brian Ruh paraphrasedSusan J. Napier in describingmukokuseki as "a way for contemporary Japanese to playfully escape their own concepts of Japan and their own feelings of Japaneseness... fantasizedmukokuseki anime bodies can be free from the cultural and societal baggage of physical bodies."[8] Other popular narratives have stated that, due to their fictionalized or aestheticized settings and "abstracted" representations of the human body, manga and anime are inherently divorced from real-life categories of ethnicities and that their characters are therefore all naturallymukokuseki.[8][5]
ALanguage Awareness study of Japanese popular media found traits such as blonde hair and marked speech were widely used as shorthand for depicting foreign characters, described as a "quintessential" image of foreigners, with Americans being the most affected nationality.[15] Asian studies scholar Laura Miller noted the increasing prevalence of light-colored hair and blue eyes as cosmetic choices inJ-pop scenes and other fields ofJapanese youth culture, emphasizing the impacts these aesthetics have on conventional perceptions of race and nationality.[16]
Mukokuseki has particularly received some criticism in the context of thesoft power it does or does not afford Japanese culture in the Western world,[4] with the lack of distinct Japanese values described as rendering thecultural capital of Japanese media "nothing but an illusion".[9] A writer forComic Book Resources also criticized Western film adaptations for takingmukokuseki characters as an opportunity towhitewash lead roles in works such asThe Last Airbender (2010) orDeath Note (2017).[5]