Muhammad Ali (/ɑːˈliː/ah-LEE;[3] bornCassius Marcellus Clay Jr.; January 17, 1942 – June 3, 2016) was an Americanprofessional boxer and activist.[a] A global cultural icon, widely known by the nickname "the Greatest", he is often regarded as the greatestheavyweight boxer of all time. He held theRing magazine heavyweight title from 1964 to 1970, was the undisputed champion from 1974 to 1978, and was theWBA andRing heavyweight champion from 1978 to 1979. In 1999, he was namedSportsman of the Century bySports Illustrated and theSports Personality of the Century by theBBC.
Born inLouisville, Kentucky, he began training as an amateur boxer at age 12. At 18, he won a gold medal in thelight heavyweight division at the1960 Summer Olympics and turned professional later that year. He joined theNation of Islam in the early 1960s, but later disavowed it in the mid-1970s. He won the world heavyweight championship, defeatingSonny Liston ina major upset on February 25, 1964, at age 22. During that year, he denounced his birth name as a "slave name" and formally changed his name to Muhammad Ali. In 1967, Ali refused to be drafted into the military, owing tohis religious beliefs and ethicalopposition to the Vietnam War, and was found guilty ofdraft evasion and stripped of his boxing titles. He stayed out of prison whileappealing the decision to theSupreme Court, where his conviction was overturned in 1971. He did not fight for nearly four years and lost a period of peak performance as an athlete. Ali's actions as aconscientious objector to the Vietnam War made him an icon for the largercounterculture of the 1960s generation, and he became a prominent, high-profile figure of racial pride forAfrican Americans during thecivil rights movement and throughout his career.
Ali fought in several highly publicized boxing matches, including fights with Liston,Joe Frazier (including theFight of the Century, to that point the biggest boxing event and theThrilla in Manila), andGeorge Foreman inThe Rumble in the Jungle. At a time when many boxers let their managers do the talking, Ali became renowned for his provocative and outlandish persona. He was famous fortrash talking, oftenfree-styled with rhyme schemes andspoken word poetry, and is identified as a pioneer inhip-hop. He often predicted in which round he would knock out his opponent. As a boxer, Ali was known for his unorthodox movement, footwork, head movement, andrope-a-dope technique, among others.
Outside boxing, Ali performed as aspoken word artist, releasing two studio albums:I Am the Greatest! (1963) andThe Adventures of Ali and His Gang vs. Mr. Tooth Decay (1976). Both albums receivedGrammy Award nominations. He also featured as an actor and writer, releasing two autobiographies. Ali retired from boxing in 1981 and focused on religion, philanthropy, and activism. In 1984, he made public his diagnosis ofParkinson's syndrome, which some reports attributed to boxing-related injuries, though he and his specialist physicians disputed this. He remained an active public figure, but in his later years made fewer public appearances as his condition worsened, and was cared for by his family.
His father was a sign and billboard painter,[10][11] and his mother a domestic helper. Although Cassius Sr. was aMethodist, he allowed Odessa to bring up both Cassius Jr. and his younger brother Rudy (later renamedRahaman Ali), asBaptists.[11][18] Clay Jr. attendedCentral High School in Louisville and wasdyslexic, which led to difficulties in reading and writing.[19]
He grew up amidracial segregation. His mother recalled one occasion when he was denied a drink of water at a store because of his race, saying it "really affected him."[20] He was also strongly affected by the 1955 murder ofEmmett Till, taking out his frustration by vandalizing a local rail yard with a friend. He later told his daughter Hana, "Nothing would ever shake me up (more) than the story of Emmett Till."[21][22]
Clay was first directed toward boxing by Louisville police officer and boxing coachJoe E. Martin,[23] who encountered the 12-year-old fuming over a thief having taken his bicycle. He told the officer he was going to "whup" the thief. The officer told Clay he had better learn how to box first.[24] Initially, Clay did not take up Martin's offer, but after seeing amateur boxers on a local television boxing program calledTomorrow's Champions, Clay was interested in the prospect of fighting.[25] He then began to work with trainer Fred Stoner, whom he credits with giving him the "real training", eventually molding "my style, my stamina and my system". For the last four years of Clay's amateur career he was trained by boxingcutmanChuck Bodak.[26]
Clay made his amateur boxing debut in 1954 against local amateur boxer Ronnie O'Keefe. He won by split decision.[27] He went on to win six KentuckyGolden Gloves titles, two Chicago Golden Gloves, two national Golden Gloves titles, twoAmateur Athletic Union national titles, theU.S. Olympic Trials, and thelight heavyweight gold medal in the1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.[28] Clay's amateur record was 100 wins with five losses. In his 1975 autobiography he recalled that shortly after his return from the Rome Olympics, he threw his gold medal into theOhio River after he and a friend were refused service at a "whites-only" restaurant and fought with a white gang. The story was later disputed, and several of his friends, includingBundini Brown and photographerHoward Bingham, denied it. Brown toldSports Illustrated writer Mark Kram, "Honkies sure bought into that one!"Thomas Hauser's biography of Ali stated that Ali was refused service at the diner but that he lost his medal a year after he won it.[29] Ali received a replacement medal at theGeorgia Dome during the1996 Olympics in Atlanta, where he lit the torch to start the Games.
On-site poster forCassius Clay's fifth professional bout
Clay made his professional debut on October 29, 1960, winning a six-round decision overTunney Hunsaker. From then until the end of 1963, Clay amassed a record of 19–0 with 15 wins by knockout. He defeated boxers including Tony Esperti,Jim Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff,LaMar Clark,Doug Jones, andHenry Cooper. Clay also beat his former trainer and veteran boxerArchie Moore in a 1962 match.[30][31]
These early fights were not without trials. Clay was knocked down by bothSonny Banks and Cooper. In the Cooper fight, Clay was floored by a lefthook at the end of round four and was saved by the bell, going on to win in the predicted fifth round due to Cooper's severely cut eye. The fight with Doug Jones on March 13, 1963, was Clay's toughest fight during this stretch. The number two and three heavyweight contenders respectively, Clay and Jones fought on Jones' home turf at New York'sMadison Square Garden. Jones staggered Clay in the first round, and the unanimous decision for Clay was greeted by boos and a rain of debris thrown into the ring. Watching on closed-circuit TV, heavyweight champSonny Liston quipped that if he fought Clay he (Liston) might get locked up for murder. The fight was later named "Fight of the Year" byThe Ring magazine.[32]
In each of these fights, Clay vocally belittled his opponents and vaunted his abilities. He called Jones "an ugly little man" and Cooper a "bum". He said he was embarrassed to get in the ring with Alex Miteff and claimed that Madison Square Garden was "too small for me".[33] Ali'strash talk was inspired byprofessional wrestler"Gorgeous George" Wagner's, after he saw George's talking ability attract huge crowds to events.[34] In a 1969 interview he stated that he met with George in Las Vegas in 1961, that George told him that talking a big game would earn paying fans who either wanted to see him win or wanted to see him lose, thus Clay transformed himself into a self-described "big-mouth and a bragger".[35]
In 1960, Clay left Moore's camp, partially due to Clay's refusal to do chores such as washing dishes and sweeping. To replace Moore, Clay hiredAngelo Dundee to be his trainer. Clay had met Dundee in February 1957 during Clay's amateur career.[36] Around this time, Clay sought longtime idolSugar Ray Robinson to be his manager, but was rebuffed.[37]
By late 1963, Clay had become the top contender for Sonny Liston's title. The fight was set for February 25, 1964, inMiami Beach. Liston was an intimidating personality, a dominating fighter with a criminal past and ties to the mob. Based on Clay's uninspired performance against Jones and Cooper in his previous two fights, and Liston's destruction of former heavyweight championFloyd Patterson in two first-round knockouts, Clay was an 8:1 underdog.[38] Despite this, Clay taunted Liston during the pre-fight buildup, dubbing him "the big ugly bear", claiming "Liston even smells like a bear" and "I'm gonna give him to the local zoo after I whup him."[39] Clay turned the pre-fight weigh-in into a circus, shouting at Liston that "someone is going to die at ringside tonight." Clay's pulse rate was measured at 120, more than double his normal 54.[38]
The outcome of the fight was a major upset. At the opening bell, Liston rushed at Clay, seemingly angry and looking for a quick knockout. However, Clay's superior speed and mobility enabled him to elude Liston, making the champion miss and look awkward. At the end of the first round, Clay opened up his attack and hit Liston repeatedly with jabs. Liston fought better in round two, but at the beginning of the third round Clay hit Liston with a combination that buckled his knees and opened a cut under his left eye. This was the first time Liston had ever been cut. At the end of round four, Clay was returning to his corner when he began experiencing blinding pain in his eyes and asked his trainer,Angelo Dundee, to cut off his gloves. Dundee refused. It has been speculated that the problem was due to ointment used to seal Liston's cuts, perhaps deliberately applied by his corner to his gloves.[38] Though unconfirmed, boxing historianBert Sugar said that two of Liston's opponents also complained about their eyes "burning".[40]
Clay whips a right to the head of Liston
Despite Liston's attempts to knock out a blinded Clay, Clay was able to survive the fifth round until sweat and tears rinsed the irritation from his eyes. In the sixth, Clay dominated, hitting Liston repeatedly. Liston did not answer the bell for the seventh round, and Clay was declared the winner byTKO. Liston stated that the reason he quit was an injured shoulder. Following the win, a triumphant Clay rushed to the edge of the ring and, pointing to the ringside press, shouted: "Eat your words!" He added, "I am the greatest! I shook up the world. I'm the prettiest thing that ever lived."[41]
At ringside post fight, Clay appeared unconvinced that the fight was stopped due to a Liston shoulder injury, saying that the only injury Liston had was "an open eye, a big cut eye!" When told by Joe Louis that the injury was a "left arm thrown out of its socket," Clay quipped, "Yeah, swinging at nothing, who wouldn't?"[42]
In winning this fight at the age of 22, Clay became the youngest boxer to take the title from a reigning heavyweight champion. However,Floyd Patterson remained the youngest to win the heavyweight championship, doing so at the age 21 during an elimination bout followingRocky Marciano's retirement.Mike Tyson broke both records in 1986 when he defeatedTrevor Berbick to win the heavyweight title at age 20. The feat also made Clay the fastest boxer to win the championship (non-vacant) in the modern era, doing so in 20 bouts.
Soon after the Liston fight, Clay changed his name to Cassius X, and then later to Muhammad Ali upon converting to theNation of Islam.
Ali then faced a rematch with Liston scheduled for May 1965 inLewiston, Maine. It had been scheduled for Boston the previous November, but was postponed for six months due to Ali's emergency surgery for a hernia three days before.[43] The fight was controversial. Midway through the first round, Liston was knocked down by a difficult-to-see blow the press dubbed a "phantom punch". RefereeJersey Joe Walcott did not begin the count immediately after the knockdown, as Ali refused to retreat to a neutral corner. Liston rose after he had been down for about 20 seconds, and the fight momentarily continued. However a few seconds later Walcott, having been informed by the timekeepers that Liston had been down for a count of 10, stopped the match and declared Ali the winner by knockout.[44] The entire fight lasted less than two minutes.[45]
It has since been speculated that Liston purposely dropped to the ground. Proposed motivations include threats on his life from the Nation of Islam, that he had bet against himself and that he "took a dive" to pay off debts. Slow-motion replays show that Liston was jarred by a chopping right from Ali, although it is unclear whether the blow was a genuine knockout punch.[46]
Ali defended his title against former heavyweight championFloyd Patterson on November 22, 1965. Before the match, Ali mocked Patterson, who was widely known to call him by his former name Cassius Clay, as an "Uncle Tom", calling him "The Rabbit". Although Ali had the better of Patterson, who appeared injured during the fight, the match lasted 12 rounds before being called on a technical knockout. Patterson later said he had strained hissacroiliac. Ali was criticized in the sports media for appearing to have toyed with Patterson during the fight.[47] Patterson biographer W. K. Stratton claims that the conflict between Ali and Patterson was not genuine but was staged to increase ticket sales and the closed-circuit viewing audience, with both men complicit in the theatrics. Stratton also cites an interview byHoward Cosell in which Ali explained that rather than toying with Patterson, he refrained from knocking him out after it became apparent Patterson was injured. Patterson later said that he had never been hit by punches as soft as Ali's. Stratton states that Ali arranged the second fight, in 1972, with the financially struggling Patterson to help the former champion earn enough money to pay a debt to theIRS.[47]
Main Bout
Ali watches replay of his March 1966 title fight againstHenry Cooper.[48]
After the Patterson fight, Ali founded his own promotion company,Main Bout. The company mainly handled Ali's boxing promotions andpay-per-viewclosed-circuit television broadcasts. The company's stockholders were mainly fellow Nation of Islam members, along with several others, includingBob Arum.[49]
Ali and then-WBA heavyweight champion boxerErnie Terrell had agreed to meet for a bout in Chicago on March 29, 1966 (the WBA, one of two boxing associations, had stripped Ali of his title following his joining the Nation of Islam). But in February Ali was reclassified by the Louisville draft board as 1-A from 1-Y, and he indicated that he would refuse to serve, commenting to the press, "I ain't got nothing against noViet Cong; no Viet Cong never called menigger.",[50] although the second part is probably apocryphal.[51] Amidst the media and public outcry over Ali's stance, the Illinois Athletic Commission refused to sanction the fight, citing technicalities.[52]
Ali returned to the United States to fightCleveland Williams at theAstrodome inHouston on November 14, 1966. The bout drew a record-breaking indoor crowd of 35,460 people. Williams had once been considered among the hardest punchers in the heavyweight division, but in 1964 he had been shot at point-blank range by a Texas policeman, resulting in the loss of one kidney and 3.0 metres (10 ft) of his small intestine. Ali dominated Williams, winning a third-round technical knockout in what some consider the finest performance of his career.
Ali punching Terrell
Ali fought Terrell in Houston on February 6, 1967. Terrell, who was unbeaten in five years and had defeated many of the boxers Ali had faced, was billed as Ali's toughest opponent since Liston; he was big, strong and had a three-inch reach advantage over Ali. During the lead up to the bout, Terrell repeatedly called Ali "Clay", much to Ali's annoyance. The two almost came to blows over the name issue in a pre-fight interview with Howard Cosell. Ali seemed intent on humiliating Terrell. "I want to torture him", he said. "A clean knockout is too good for him."[53] The fight was close until the seventh round, when Ali bloodied Terrell and almost knocked him out. In the eighth round, Ali taunted Terrell, hitting him with jabs and shouting between punches, "What's my name, Uncle Tom ... what's my name?" Ali won a unanimous 15-round decision. Terrell claimed that early in the fight Ali deliberately thumbed him in the eye, forcing him to fight half-blind, and then, in a clinch, rubbed the wounded eye against the ropes. Because of Ali's apparent intent to prolong the fight to inflict maximum punishment, critics described the bout as "one of the ugliest boxing fights".Tex Maule later wrote: "It was a wonderful demonstration of boxing skill and a barbarous display of cruelty." Ali denied the accusations of cruelty but, for Ali's critics, the fight provided more evidence of his arrogance.
After Ali's title defense againstZora Folley on March 22, he was stripped of his title due to his refusal to be drafted to army service.[10] His boxing license was also suspended by the state of New York. He was convicted of draft evasion on June 20 and sentenced to five years in prison and a $10,000 fine. He paid a bond and remained free while the verdict was being appealed.
My enemy is the white people, not Viet Cong or Chinese or Japanese.You my opposer when I want freedom.You my opposer when I want justice.You my opposer when I want equality. You won't even stand up for me in America for my religious beliefs—and you want me to go somewhere and fight, but you won't even stand up for me here at home?
—Muhammad Ali to a crowd of college students during his exile from boxing[54]
Ali registered forconscription in the United States military on his 18th birthday and was listed as1-A in 1962.[55] In 1964, he was reclassified as Class 1-Y (fit for service only in times of national emergency) after he failed theU.S. Armed Forces qualifying test because his writing and spelling skills were sub-standard,[56] due to hisdyslexia.[19] (He was quoted as saying, "I said I was the greatest, not the smartest!"[55][57]) By early 1966, the army lowered its standards to permit soldiers above the 15th percentile and Ali was again classified as 1-A.[10][55][57] This classification meant he was now eligible for the draft and induction into the U.S. Army at a time when the U.S. was involved in the Vietnam War, a war which put him further at odds with the white establishment.[58]
Ali leaving court in June 1967
When notified of this status, Ali declared that he would refuse to serve in the army and publicly considered himself aconscientious objector.[10] Ali stated: "War is against the teachings of theQur'an. I'm not trying to dodge the draft. We are not supposed to take part in no wars unless declared byAllah or The Messenger. We don't take part in Christian wars or wars of any unbelievers".[59] He also said, "We are not to be the aggressor but we will defend ourselves if attacked." He stated: "Man, I ain't got no quarrel with them Vietcong."[60] Ali elaborated: "Why should they ask me to put on a uniform and go ten thousand miles from home and drop bombs and bullets on brown people in Vietnam while so-called Negro people in Louisville are treated like dogs and denied simple human rights?"[61] Ali antagonized the white establishment in 1966 by refusing to be drafted into the U.S. military, citing his religious beliefs and opposition to American involvement in theVietnam War.[20][58][62][63]
On April 28, 1967, Ali appeared in Houston for his scheduled induction into the U.S. Armed Forces, but he refused three times to step forward when his name was called. An officer warned him that he was committing a felony punishable by five years in prison and a fine of $10,000. Once more, Ali refused to budge when his name was called, and he was arrested. Later that same day, theNew York State Athletic Commission suspended his boxing license and theWorld Boxing Association stripped him of his title.[64] Other boxing commissions followed suit. Ali remained unable to obtain a license to box in any state for over three years.[65][page needed] On June 4, 1967, in a first for sports professionals, a group of high-profile African-American athletes—includingJim Brown,Bill Russell, andKareem Abdul-Jabbar, as well as one political leader,Carl Stokes—assembled with Ali at the Negro Industrial Economic Union in Cleveland for what became known as the "Cleveland Summit" or the "Muhammad Ali Summit". The meeting was organized by Brown for his peers to question Ali about the seriousness of his convictions, and to decide whether to support him, which they ultimately did.[66]
At the trial on June 20, 1967, the jury found Ali guilty after only 21minutes of deliberation of the criminal offense of violating theSelective Service laws by refusing to be drafted.[10] After a Court of Appeals upheld the conviction, the case was reviewed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1971.[68]
Ali remained free in the years between the Appellate Court decision and theSupreme Court ruling. As public opinion began turning against the war and the Civil Rights Movement continued to gather momentum, Ali became a popular speaker at colleges and universities across the country; this itinerary was rare if not unprecedented for a prizefighter. AtHoward University, for example, he gave his popular "Black Is Best" speech to 4,000 cheering students and community intellectuals, after he was invited to speak by sociology professorNathan Hare on behalf of the Black Power Committee, a student protest group.[69]
On June 28, 1971, the Supreme Court of the United States inClay v. United States overturned Ali's conviction by a unanimous 8–0 decision (JusticeThurgood Marshall recused himself, as he had been theU.S. Solicitor General at the time of Ali's conviction).[70] The decision was not based on, nor did it address, the merits of Ali's claims per se. Rather, the Court held that since the appeal board gave no reason for the denial of a conscientious objector exemption to Ali, it was therefore impossible to determine which of the three basic tests for conscientious objector status (offered in theJustice Department's brief) the appeal board relied on, and Ali's conviction must be reversed.[71]
In a 1974 interview, Ali said, "If they say stand and salute the flag I do that out of respect, because I'm in the country".[72] Ali would later say, "If America was in trouble and real war came, I'd be on the front line if we had been attacked. But I could see that [the Vietnam War] wasn't right."[73] He also said, "Black men would go over there and fight, but when they came home, they couldn't even be served a hamburger."[74]
Impact of Ali's draft refusal
Ali's example inspired many black Americans and others. However, initially when he refused induction, he became arguably the most hated man in the country and received many death threats. People who supported Ali during this time were also threatened, including sports journalistJerry Izenberg, whose columns defended Ali's decision not to serve. He wrote, "Bomb threats emptied our office, making the staff stand out in the snow. My car windshield was smashed with a sledgehammer."[75][76]The New York Times columnistWilliam Rhoden wrote, "Ali's actions changed my standard of what constituted an athlete's greatness. Possessing a killer jump shot or the ability to stop on a dime was no longer enough. What were you doing for the liberation of your people? What were you doing to help your country live up to the covenant of its founding principles?"[63]
Recalling Ali's anti-war position,Kareem Abdul-Jabbar said: "I remember the teachers at my high school didn't like Ali because he was so anti-establishment and he kind of thumbed his nose at authority and got away with it. The fact that he was proud to be a black man and that he had so much talent... made some people think that he was dangerous. But for those very reasons I enjoyed him."[77]
Civil rights figures came to believe that Ali had an energizing effect on the freedom movement as a whole.Al Sharpton spoke of his bravery at a time when there was still widespread support for the Vietnam War:
For the heavyweight champion of the world, who had achieved the highest level of athletic celebrity, to put all of that on the line—the money, the ability to get endorsements—to sacrifice all of that for a cause, gave a whole sense of legitimacy to the movement and the causes with young people that nothing else could have done. Even those who were assassinated, certainly lost their lives, but they didn't voluntarily do that. He knew he was going to jail and did it anyway. That's another level of leadership and sacrifice.[78]
Ali was honored with the annual Martin Luther King Award in 1970 by civil rights leaderRalph Abernathy, who called him "a living example of soul power, theMarch on Washington in two fists".Coretta Scott King added that Ali was "a champion of justice and peace and unity".[79]
In speaking of the cost on Ali's career of his refusal to be drafted, his trainer Angelo Dundee said, "One thing must be taken into account when talking about Ali: He was robbed of his best years, his prime years."[80] Ali's promoterBob Arum did not support Ali's choice at the time, but in 2016 Arum stated: "when I look back at his life, and I was blessed to call him a friend and spent a lot of time with him, it's hard for me to talk about his exploits in boxing because as great as they were they paled in comparison to the impact that he had on the world. ... He did what he thought was right. And it turned out he was right, and I was wrong."[81]
In a secret operation code-named "Minaret", theNational Security Agency (NSA) intercepted the communications of leading Americans, including Ali, SenatorsFrank Church andHoward Baker, Dr.Martin Luther King Jr., prominent U.S. journalists, and others who criticized the U.S. war in Vietnam.[83][84] A review by the NSA of the Minaret program concluded that it was "disreputable if not outright illegal".[84]
In 1971, Ali'sFight of the Century with Frazier was used by an activist group, theCitizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI, to pull off a burglary at anFBI office in Pennsylvania; the anticipation for the fight was unlike anything else, so they believed the security would also be focused on the fight. This raid exposed theCOINTELPRO operations that included illegal spying on activists involved with the civil rights and anti-war movements. One of the COINTELPRO targets was Ali, and their activities included the FBI gaining access to his records as far back as elementary school; one such record mentioned him loving art as a child.[85]
Exile and comeback
In March 1966, Alirefused to be inducted into the armed forces. He was systematically denied a boxing license in every state and stripped of his passport. As a result, he did not fight from March 1967 to October 1970 until his conviction was overturned in 1971.
Protesting while exiled
During this time of inactivity, asopposition to the Vietnam War began to grow and Ali's stance gained sympathy, he spoke at colleges across the nation, criticizing the Vietnam War and advocating African American pride and racial justice. Ali based himself in Chicago.[86] According to most close to him, his Chicago years were formative.
At the time, Ali was widely condemned by theAmerican media,[87] with fears that his actions could potentially lead to masscivil disobedience.[88] Despite this,Ebony magazine noted in the late 1960s that Ali's popularity had increased during this time, especially among black people.[89]
While banned from sanctioned bouts, Ali settled a $1 million lawsuit against radio producer Murray Woroner by accepting $10,000 to appear in a privately staged fantasy fight against retired champion Rocky Marciano.[90] In 1969 the boxers were filmed sparring for about 75 one-minute rounds; they produced several potential outcomes.[91] A computer program purportedly determined the winner, based on data about the fighters, along with the opinions of approximately 250 boxing experts. Edited versions of the bout were shown in movie theaters in 1970. In the U.S. version Ali lost in a simulated 13th-round knockout, but in the European version Marciano lost due to cuts, also simulated.[92]
Ali suggested that prejudice determined his defeat in the U.S. version; he was reported to have jokingly said, "That computer was made inAlabama."[90]
Return
On August 11, 1970, with his case still in appeal, Ali was granted a license to box by the City of Atlanta Athletic Commission.Leroy Johnson,Jesse Hill Jr. and Harry Pett had used their local political influence and set up the company House of Sports to organize the fight, underlining the influential power of Georgia's black politics in Ali's comeback.[93] Ali's first return bout was againstJerry Quarry on October 26, resulting in a win after three rounds after Quarry was cut.
A month earlier, a victory in federal court forced the New York State Boxing Commission to reinstate Ali's license.[94] He foughtOscar Bonavena at Madison Square Garden in December, an uninspired performance that ended in a dramatictechnical knockout of Bonavena in the 15th round. The win left Ali as a top contender against heavyweight championJoe Frazier.[95][96][97]
Ali and Frazier's first fight, held at the Garden, was on March 8, 1971, while Ali's Supreme Court appeal was still pending. It was nicknamed the "Fight of the Century" due to the tremendous excitement surrounding a bout between two undefeated fighters, each with a legitimate claim to be heavyweight champion. Veteran U.S. boxing writer John Condon called it "the greatest event I've ever worked on in my life." The bout was broadcast to 36 countries; promoters granted 760 press passes.[29]
Adding to the atmosphere were the considerable pre-fight theatrics and name calling. Before the fight, Frazier called Ali "Cassius Clay," angering Ali who responded by calling Frazier a "dumb tool of the white establishment" and saying "Frazier is too ugly to be champ. Frazier is too dumb to be champ." Ali also frequently called Frazier an "Uncle Tom". Dave Wolf, who worked in Frazier's camp, recalled that "Ali was saying 'the only people rooting for Joe Frazier are white people in suits, Alabama sheriffs, and members of theKu Klux Klan. I'm fighting for the little man in the ghetto.' Joe was sitting there, smashing his fist into the palm of his hand, saying, 'What the fuck does he know about the ghetto?'"[29]
Ali began training at a farm nearReading, Pennsylvania, in 1971 and, finding the country setting to his liking, sought to develop areal training camp in the countryside. He found a five-acre site on a Pennsylvania country road in the village ofDeer Lake, Pennsylvania. On this site, Ali carved out what was to become his training camp, where he trained for all his fights from 1972 to the end of his career in 1981.
The Monday night fight lived up to its billing. In a preview of their two other fights, a crouching, bobbing and weaving Frazier constantly pressured Ali, getting hit regularly by Ali jabs and combinations, but relentlessly attacking and scoring repeatedly, especially to Ali's body. The fight was even in the early rounds, but Ali was taking more punishment than ever in his career up until that point. On several occasions in the early rounds, he played to the crowd and shook his head "no" after he was hit. In the later rounds—in what was the first appearance of the "rope-a-dope strategy"—Ali leaned against the ropes and absorbed punishment from Frazier, hoping to tire him. In the 11th round, Frazier connected with a left hook that wobbled Ali, but because it appeared that Ali might be clowning as he staggered backwards across the ring, Frazier hesitated to press his advantage, fearing an Ali counterattack. In the final round, Frazier knocked Ali down with a vicious left hook, which refereeArthur Mercante Sr. said was as hard as a man can be hit. Ali was back on his feet in three seconds.[29] Nevertheless, Ali lost by unanimous decision, his first professional defeat.
In 1971, basketball starWilt Chamberlain challenged Ali to a fight, and a bout was scheduled for July 26. Although the seven-foot-one-inch-tall Chamberlain had formidable physical advantages over Ali—weighing 60pounds more and able to reach 14inches further—Ali was able to influence Chamberlain into calling off the bout by taunting him with calls of "Timber!" and "The tree will fall" during a shared interview. These statements of confidence unsettled his taller opponent, whomLos Angeles Lakers ownerJack Kent Cooke had offered a record-setting contract, conditional on Chamberlain agreeing to abandon what Cooke termed "this boxing foolishness",[98] and he did exactly that.[99]
Meanwhile, on June 28, 1971, the Supreme Court overturned Ali's draft evasion conviction. To replace Ali's opponent, promoterBob Arum quickly booked a former sparring partner of Ali's,Jimmy Ellis, who was a childhood friend fromLouisville, Kentucky, to fight him. Ali won the bout through a technical knockout when the referee stopped the fight in the twelfth round.[100]
Fights against Quarry, Patterson, Foster, Bugner and Norton
After Ellis, Ali fought Jerry Quarry, had a second bout with Floyd Patterson, and facedBob Foster in 1972, winning a total of six fights that year. During two bouts he had in 1973 withJoe Bugner andKen Norton, he wore a "People's Choice" robe given to him byElvis Presley, who in later years Ali revealed became one of his "close, personal" friends.[101][102] In 1973, before his fight with Norton, Tom Cushman, a boxing writer for thePhiladelphia Daily News, said Ali was "gloriously overconfident" and didn't consider Norton "a threat at all".[103] But during the fight, either in the second round according to most press reports, or the final round according to Norton, Norton broke Ali's jaw and inflicted by decision the second loss of his career.[103] After considering retirement, Ali won a controversial decision against Norton in their second bout.[citation needed] This led to a rematch with Joe Frazier at Madison Square Garden on January 28, 1974; Frazier had recently lost his title to George Foreman.
Ali was strong in the early rounds of the fight, and staggered Frazier in the second round. Referee Tony Perez mistakenly thought he heard the bell ending the round and stepped between the two fighters as Ali was pressing his attack, giving Frazier time to recover. However, Frazier came on in the middle rounds, snapping Ali's head in round seven and driving him to the ropes at the end of round eight. The last four rounds saw round-to-round shifts in momentum between the two fighters. Throughout most of the bout, however, Ali was able to circle away from Frazier's dangerous left hook and to tie Frazier up when he was cornered, the latter a tactic that Frazier's camp complained of bitterly. Judges awarded Ali a unanimous decision.
Foreman falling to the canvas after a hard right straight to the face
The defeat of Frazier set the stage for a title fight against heavyweight championGeorge Foreman in Kinshasa,Zaire, on October 30, 1974—a bout nicknamedThe Rumble in the Jungle. Foreman was considered one of the hardest punchers in heavyweight history. In assessing the fight, analysts pointed out thatJoe Frazier andKen Norton, who had given Ali four tough battles and won two of them, had both been devastated by Foreman in second-round knockouts. Ali was 32 years old and had lost speed and reflexes since his twenties. Contrary to his later persona, Foreman was at the time a brooding and intimidating presence. Almost no one associated with the sport, not even Ali's long-time supporter Howard Cosell, gave the former champion a chance of winning.[citation needed]
As usual, Ali was confident and colorful before the fight. He told interviewerDavid Frost, "If you think the world was surprised when Nixon resigned, wait till I whup Foreman's behind!"[104] He told the press, "I've done something new for this fight. I done wrestled with an alligator, I done tussled with a whale; handcuffed lightning, thrown thunder in jail; only last week, I murdered a rock, injured a stone, hospitalized a brick; I'm so mean I make medicine sick."[105] Ali was wildly popular in Zaire, with crowds chanting "Ali, bomaye" ("Ali, kill him") wherever he went.
Ali opened the fight moving and scoring with right crosses to Foreman's head. Then, beginning in the second round, and to the consternation of his corner, Ali retreated to the ropes and invited Foreman to hit him while covering up, clinching and counterpunching, all while verbally taunting Foreman. The move, which would later become known as the "Rope-a-dope", so violated conventional boxing wisdom—letting one of the hardest hitters in boxing strike at will—that at ringside writerGeorge Plimpton thought the fight had to be fixed.[29] Foreman, increasingly angered, threw punches that were deflected and did not land squarely. Midway through the fight, as Foreman began tiring, Ali countered more frequently and effectively with punches and flurries, which electrified the pro-Ali crowd. In the eighth round, Ali dropped an exhausted Foreman with a combination at center ring; Foreman failed to make the count. Against the odds, and amidst pandemonium in the ring, Ali had regained the title by knockout. Reflecting on the fight, George Foreman later said: "I thought Ali was just one more knockout victim until, about the seventh round, I hit him hard to the jaw and he held me and whispered in my ear: 'That all you got, George?' I realized that this ain't what I thought it was."[106]
PresidentJimmy Carter greets Ali, along with his wife Veronica Porché, at a White House dinner, 1977.
It was a majorupset victory,[107] after Ali came in as a 4–1underdog against the previously unbeaten, heavy-hitting Foreman.[108] The fight became famous for Ali's introduction of the rope-a-dope tactic.[109] The fight was watched by a record estimated television audience of 1billion viewers worldwide.[110][111] It was the world'smost-watched live television broadcast at the time.[112]
Fights against Wepner, Lyle and Bugner
Ali's next opponents includedChuck Wepner,Ron Lyle, andJoe Bugner. Wepner, a journeyman known as "The Bayonne Bleeder", stunned Ali with a knockdown in the ninth round; Ali would later say he tripped on Wepner's foot. The fight inspiredSylvester Stallone to create the acclaimed filmRocky.[113]
Ali then agreed to a third match with Joe Frazier inManila. The bout, known as the "Thrilla in Manila", was held on October 1, 1975,[10] in temperatures approaching 100 °F (38 °C). In the first rounds, Ali was aggressive, moving and exchanging blows with Frazier. However, Ali soon appeared to tire and adopted the "rope-a-dope" strategy, frequently resorting to clinches. During this part of the bout Ali did some effective counterpunching, but for the most part absorbed punishment from a relentlessly attacking Frazier. In the 12th round, Frazier began to tire, and Ali scored several sharp blows that closed Frazier's left eye and opened a cut over his right eye. With Frazier's vision now diminished, Ali dominated the 13th and 14th rounds, at times conducting what boxing historian Mike Silver called "target practice" on Frazier's head. The fight was stopped when Frazier's trainer, Eddie Futch, refused to allow Frazier to answer the bell for the 15th and final round, despite Frazier's protests. Frazier's eyes were both swollen shut. Ali, in his corner, winner by TKO, slumped on his stool, spent.
An ailing Ali said afterwards that the fight "was the closest thing to dying that I know", and, when later asked if he had viewed the fight on videotape, reportedly said, "Why would I want to go back and see Hell?" After the fight he cited Frazier as "the greatest fighter of all times next to me".
After the third fight with Frazier, Ali considered retirement. He said, "I'm sore all over. My arms, my face, my sides all ache. I'm so, so tired. There is a great possibility that I will retire. You might have seen the last of me. I want to sit back and count my money, live in my house and my farm, work for my people and concentrate on my family."[114]
On February 2, 1976, Ali defeatedJean-Pierre Coopman by 5th round knockout. The WBC Heavyweight title was not on the line for this fight. On April 30, 1976, Ali would fightJimmy Young and win a controversial unanimous decision. Howard Cosell would remark that he had "never seen Ali so off in his timing" and when asked on his performance against Young in the post-fight interview, Ali stated that he was "getting old" and that he was "preserving his energy" for Ken Norton.[115] On May 24, 1976, Ali defeatedRichard Dunn, winning by 5th round technical knockout. The punch used to knock Dunn out was taught to Ali byTaekwondoGrandmasterJhoon Rhee. Rhee called that punch the "Accupunch"; he learned it fromBruce Lee.[116] The Dunn fight was the last time Ali would knock an opponent out in his boxing career.
Ali foughtKen Norton for the third time in September 1976. The bout, which was held atYankee Stadium, resulted in Ali winning a controversial decision that ringside commentators had scored in favor of Norton. Afterwards, he announced he was retiring from boxing to practice his faith, having converted toSunni Islam after falling out with the Nation of Islam the previous year.[117]
After returning to beatAlfredo Evangelista in May 1977, Ali struggled in his next fight againstEarnie Shavers that September, getting pummeled a few times by punches to the head. Ali won the fight by another unanimous decision, but the bout caused his longtime doctorFerdie Pacheco to quit after he was rebuffed for telling Ali he should retire. Pacheco was quoted as saying, "the New York State Athletic Commission gave me a report that showed Ali's kidneys were falling apart. I wrote to Angelo Dundee, Ali's trainer, his wife and Ali himself. I got nothing back in response. That's when I decided enough is enough."[29]
In February 1978, Ali facedLeon Spinks at the Hilton Hotel inLas Vegas. At the time, Spinks had only seven professional fights to his credit, and had recently fought a draw with journeyman Scott LeDoux. Ali sparred less than two dozen rounds in preparation for the fight and was seriously out of shape by the opening bell. He lost the title by split decision. A rematch occurred in September at theSuperdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. 70,000 people attended the bout and paid a total of $6 million admission, making it the largest live gate in boxing history at that time.[118] Ali won a unanimous decision in an uninspiring fight, with referee Lucien Joubert scoring rounds 10–4, judge Ernie Cojoe 10–4, and judge Herman Preis 11–4. This made Ali the first heavyweight champion to win the belt three times.[119][120]
Following this win, on July 27, 1979, Ali announced his retirement from boxing. His retirement was short-lived, however; Ali announced his comeback to faceLarry Holmes for the WBC belt in an attempt to win the heavyweight championship an unprecedented fourth time. The fight was largely motivated by Ali's need for money. Boxing writerRichie Giachetti said, "Larry didn't want to fight Ali. He knew Ali had nothing left; he knew it would be a horror."
It was around this time that Ali started struggling with vocal stutters and trembling hands.[121] TheNevada Athletic Commission (NAC) ordered that he undergo a complete physical in Las Vegas before being allowed to fight again. Ali chose instead to check into theMayo Clinic, who declared him fit to fight. Their opinion was accepted by the NAC on July 31, 1980, paving the way for Ali's return to the ring.[122]
On October 2, 1980, Ali returned to the ring to fight Holmes atCaesars Palace inLas Vegas. Holmes, who fought under the nickname "TheEaston Assassin", easily dominated Ali. After the tenth round,Angelo Dundee stepped into the ring and instructed the referee to stop the fight. It was the only time Ali ever lost bystoppage.
Immediately after the fight, Ali was given painkillers and antidepressants, in violation of World Boxing Council rules prohibiting the administration of any drug before the postfight urinalysis.[123][124]
Giachetti called the fight "awful...the worst sports event I ever had to cover". ActorSylvester Stallone was ringside for the fight and said that it was like watching an autopsy on a man who is still alive.[29] The Holmes fight is said to have contributed to Ali'sParkinson's syndrome.[125][126][127] Despite pleas to definitively retire, Ali fought one last time onDecember 11, 1981, in Nassau,Bahamas, againstTrevor Berbick, losing a ten-round decision.[128][129][130]
Rahaman Ali (1943–2025) was Ali's only sibling. Though not as successful as his brother, Rahaman, who was born Rudolph Arnett Clay, would also follow in his brother's footsteps and become a professional boxer from 1964 to 1972.[137] After his professional career ended, Rahaman would often travel and train with Muhammad.[137]
Ali was married four times and had seven daughters and two sons. Ali was introduced to cocktail waitress Sonji Roi byHerbert Muhammad, who was to become Ali's long-time manager, and asked her to marry him after their first date. They married approximately one month later on August 14, 1964.[138] They quarreled over Sonji's refusal to join the Nation of Islam.[139] According to Ali, "She wouldn't do what she was supposed to do. She wore lipstick; she went into bars; she dressed in clothes that were revealing and didn't look right."[140] The marriage was childless and they divorced on January 10, 1966. Just before the divorce was finalized, Ali sent Sonji a note: "You traded heaven for hell, baby."[141] Ali's brother Rahaman said that she was Ali's only true love and the Nation of Islam made Ali divorce her and Ali never got over it.[139]
Ali and Boyd after their wedding
On August 17, 1967, Ali married 17-year-oldBelinda Boyd. In an interview with NBC 6, Boyd recounted meeting Ali when she was 10 years old at her hometown mosque. Boyd stated Ali signed an autograph for her while humorously remarking on his future fame, saying, "Listen here little girl. This is my name. Imma be famous. You need to keep that 'cause it's gone be worth a lot of money." Boyd said, "You'll never be famous with that name. And, I walked away."[142] Born into a Chicago family that had converted to the Nation Of Islam, she later changed her name to Khalilah Ali, though she was still called Belinda by old friends and family. They had four children: author and rapper Maryum[143] "May May" (born 1968); twins Jamillah and Rasheda (born 1970); and Muhammad Ali Jr. (born 1972).[144] Rasheda married Robert Walsh and has two sons: Biaggio Ali (born 1998), who is an amateurMMA fighter, andNico Ali (born 2000), who is a professional boxer.[145]
Ali was a resident ofCherry Hill, New Jersey, in suburbanPhiladelphia in the early 1970s.[146] At age 31 in 1973, Ali began an extramarital relationship with 16-year-old Wanda Bolton (who subsequently changed her name to Aaisha Fletcher) with whom he fathered another daughter, Khaliah (born June 1974).[147][148] While still married to Belinda, Ali married Aaisha in an Islamic ceremony that was not legally recognized. According to Khaliah, Aaisha and her mother lived at Ali's Deer Lake training camp alongside Belinda and her children.[148] In January 1985, Aaisha sued Ali for unpaid palimony. The case was settled when Ali agreed to set up a $200,000 trust fund for Khaliah.[149] In 2001, Khaliah was quoted as saying she believed her father viewed her as "a mistake".[148] He had another daughter, Miya (born 1972), from an extramarital relationship with Patricia Harvell.[150]
Muhammad Ali with wife Veronica Porché at a fundraiser in Baltimore, 1977Ali with his daughter Hana as a baby in 1977
By the summer of 1977, his second marriage ended due to Ali's repeated infidelity, and he had married actress and model Veronica Porché.[151] At the time of their marriage, they had a daughter, Hana, and Veronica was pregnant with their second child. Their second daughter,Laila Ali, was born in December 1977, and went on to become a professional boxer.[152] By 1986, Ali and Porché were divorced due to Ali's continuous infidelity. Porché said of Ali's infidelity, "It was too much temptation for him, with women who threw themselves at him. It didn't mean anything. He didn't have affairs – he had one-night stands. I knew beyond a doubt there were no feelings involved. It was so obvious, It was easy to forgive him."[153]
On November 19, 1986, Ali married Yolanda "Lonnie" Williams. Lonnie first met Ali at the age of 6 when her family moved to Louisville in 1963.[154] In 1982, she became Ali's primary caregiver and in return, he paid for her to attend graduate school atUCLA.[154] Together they adopted a son, Asaad Amin (born 1986), when Asaad was five months old.[155] In 1992, Lonnie incorporated Greatest of All Time, Inc. (G.O.A.T. Inc) to consolidate and license hisintellectual properties for commercial purposes. She served as the vice president and treasurer until the sale of the company in 2006.[154]
Ali with wife Lonnie in Washington, D.C., 2001
Ali then lived inScottsdale, Arizona with Lonnie.[156] In January 2007, it was reported that they had put their home inBerrien Springs, Michigan, which they had bought in 1975,[157] up for sale and had purchased a home in easternJefferson County, Kentucky, for $1,875,000.[158] Both homes were subsequently sold after Ali's death with Lonnie living in their remaining home in Paradise Valley, Arizona. Lonnie converted to Islam from Catholicism in her late twenties.[159]
Ali's daughter Laila was a professional boxer from 1999 until 2007,[160] despite her father's previous opposition to women's boxing. In 1978, he said "Women are not made to be hit in the breast, and face like that."[161] Ali still attended a number of his daughter's fights.[162] Ali's daughter Hana is married toBellatormiddleweight fighterKevin Casey. Hana wrote about her father, "His love for people was extraordinary. I would get home from school to find homeless families sleeping in our guest room. He'd see them on the street, pile them into his Rolls-Royce and bring them home. He'd buy them clothes, take them to hotels and pay the bills for months in advance." She also said celebrities likeMichael Jackson andClint Eastwood would often visit Ali.[163][164]
Paternity claims
Kiiursti Mensah-Ali claims she is Ali's biological daughter with Barbara Mensah, with whom he allegedly had a 20-year relationship,[165][166][167][168] citing photographs and a paternity test conducted in 1988. She said he accepted responsibility and took care of her, but all contacts with him were cut off after he married his fourth wife Lonnie. Kiiursti says she has a relationship with his other children. After his death she again made passionate appeals to be allowed to mourn at his funeral.[169][170][171]
In 2010, Osmon Williams came forward claiming to be Ali's biological son.[172] His mother Temica Williams (also known as Rebecca Holloway) launched a $3 million lawsuit against Ali in 1981 for sexual assault, claiming that she had started a sexual relationship with him when she was 12, and that her son Osmon (born 1977) was fathered by Ali when she was 17.[173] She further alleged that Ali had originally supported her and her son financially, but stopped doing so after four years. The case went on until 1986 and was eventually thrown out as her allegations were deemed to be barred by thestatute of limitations.[174] According to Veronica, Ali admitted to the affair with Williams, but did not believe Osmon was his son, which Veronica supported by saying: "Everybody in the camp was going with that girl."[175][176] Ali's biographer and friendThomas Hauser has said this claim was of "questionable veracity".[177]
Ali said that he first heard of theNation of Islam when he was fighting in the Golden Gloves tournament in Chicago in 1959 and attended his first Nation of Islam meeting in 1961. He continued to attend meetings, although he kept his involvement hidden from the public. In 1962, Clay metMalcolm X, who soon became his spiritual and political mentor.[178] By the time of the first Liston fight, Nation of Islam members, including Malcolm X, were visible in his entourage. This led to a story inThe Miami Herald just before the fight disclosing that Clay had joined the Nation of Islam, which nearly caused the bout to be canceled. The article quoted Cassius Clay Sr. as saying that his son had joined theBlack Muslims when he was 18.[179]
Ali (seen in background) at an address byElijah Muhammad in 1964
In fact, Clay was initially refused entry to the Nation of Islam (often called the BlackMuslims at the time) due to his boxing career. However, after he won the championship from Liston in 1964, the Nation of Islam was more receptive and agreed to publicize his membership.[178] Shortly afterwards on March 6, Elijah Muhammad gave a radio address that Clay would be renamedMuhammad (one who is worthy of praise)Ali (most high).[180] Around that time Ali moved to the south side of Chicago and lived in a series of houses, always near the Nation of Islam'sMosque Maryam or Elijah Muhammad's residence. He stayed in Chicago for about 12 years.[181]
Only a few journalists, most notably Howard Cosell, accepted the new name at that time. Ali stated that his earlier name was a "slave name" and a "white man's name" and added that "I didn't choose it and I don't want it. I am Muhammad Ali, a free name".[182] The person he was formerly named after wasa white slave owner turned abolitionist.[183] Ali explained in his autobiography after studying his works, "he may have gotten rid of his slaves, 'but (he) held on to white supremacy'".[184] Ali concluded: "Why should I keep my white slavemaster's name visible and my black ancestors invisible, unknown, unhonored?"[182]
Not afraid to antagonize the white establishment, Ali stated, "I am America. I am the part you won't recognize. But get used to me. Black, confident, cocky; my name, not yours; my religion, not yours; my goals, my own; get used to me."[185] Ali's friendship with Malcolm X ended as Malcolm split with the Nation of Islam a couple of weeks after Ali joined, and Ali remained with the Nation of Islam.[186][187] Ali later said that turning his back on Malcolm was one of the mistakes he regretted most in his life.[188]
Aligning himself with the Nation of Islam, its leaderElijah Muhammad, and a narrative that labeled the white race as the perpetrator of genocide against African Americans made Ali a target of public condemnation. The Nation of Islam was widely viewed by whites and some African Americans as a black separatist "hate religion" with a propensity toward violence; Ali had few qualms about using his influential voice to speak Nation of Islam doctrine.[189] In a press conference articulating his opposition to the Vietnam War, Ali stated, "My enemy is the white people, not Vietcong or Chinese or Japanese."[54]
WriterJerry Izenberg once noted that, "the Nation became Ali's family and Elijah Muhammad became his father. But there is an irony to the fact that while the Nation branded white people as devils, Ali had more white colleagues than most African American people did at that time in America, and continued to have them throughout his career."[29]
Conversion to Sunni Islam
In Hauser's biographyMuhammad Ali: His Life and Times, Ali stated that he was not a Christian as he thought the idea of God having a son sounded wrong and did not make sense to him, stating, "God don't beget; man begets". However, he still believed that even good Christians or good Jews could receive God's blessing and enter heaven as he stated, "God created all people, no matter what their religion". He also stated, "If you're against someone because he's a Muslim that's wrong. If you're against someone because he's a Christian or a Jew, that's wrong".[190]
In a 2004 autobiography, Ali attributed his conversion to mainstreamSunni Islam toWarith Deen Muhammad, who assumed leadership of the Nation of Islam upon the death of his father Elijah Muhammad and persuaded the Nation's followers to become adherents of Sunni Islam. He said some people did not like the change and stuck to Elijah's teachings, but he admired it, and so left Elijah's teachings and became a follower of Sunni Islam.[191]
Ali had gone on theHajj pilgrimage toMecca in 1972, which inspired him in a similar manner to Malcolm X, meeting people of different colors from all over the world giving him a different outlook and greaterspiritual awareness.[192] In 1977, he said that, after he retired, he would dedicate the rest of his life to getting "ready to meet God" by helping people, charitable causes, uniting people and helping to make peace.[193] He went on another Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in 1988.[194]
After theSeptember 11 attacks in 2001, he stated that "Islam is areligion of peace" and "does not promoteterrorism or killing people", and that he was "angry that the world sees a certain group of Islam followers who caused this destruction, but they are not real Muslims. They areracist fanatics who call themselves Muslims." In December 2015, after theNovember 2015 Paris attacks, he stated that "True Muslims know that the ruthless violence of so-called Islamicjihadists goes against the very tenets of our religion", that "We as Muslims have to stand up to those who use Islam to advance their own personal agenda", and that "political leaders should use their position to bring understanding about the religion of Islam, and clarify that these misguided murderers have perverted people's views on what Islam really is."[195]
He also developed an interest inSufism, which he referenced in his 2003 autobiography,The Soul of a Butterfly.[188][196][197] According to Ali's daughter, Hana Yasmeen Ali, who co-authoredThe Soul of a Butterfly with him, Ali was attracted to Sufism after reading the books ofInayat Khan, which contain Sufi teachings.[198][199]
During his amateur career, Ali refrained from smoking, drugs, and drinking alcohol and soda pop, and adopted an idiosyncratic diet.[202] Upon his acceptance of the dietary restrictions of Islam, the Nation of Islam recruited cooks to prepare his meals.[203]
Ali with clowns Charlie Frye andSkeeter Reece in 1980
Acting
Ali had a cameo role in the 1962 film version ofRequiem for a Heavyweight, and during his exile from boxing, he starred in the short-lived 1969 Broadway musical,Buck White.[204][205] He also appeared in the documentary filmBlack Rodeo (1972) riding both a horse and a bull.[206]
The filmFreedom Road, made in 1978, features Ali in a rare acting role as Gideon Jackson, a former slave and Union soldier in 1870s Virginia, who gets elected to the U.S. Senate.
Spoken word poetry
I've wrestled with alligators, I've tussled with a whale. I done handcuffed lightning and throw thunder in jail. You know I'm bad. Just last week, I murdered a rock, injured a stone, hospitalized a brick. I'm so mean, I make medicine sick.
On March 31, 1985, Ali was the special guest referee for the main event of theinaugural WrestleMania event.[218]
In 1995, Ali led a group of Japanese and American professional wrestlers, including his 1976 opponent Antonio Inoki andRic Flair, on a sports diplomacy mission toNorth Korea. Ali was guest of honor at the record-breakingCollision in Korea, a wrestling event with the largest attendance of all time.[219]
Muhammad Ali's fights were some of the world'smost-watched television broadcasts, setting television viewership records. His most-watched fights drew an estimated 1–2 billion viewers worldwide between 1974 and 1980, and were the world's most-watched live television broadcasts at the time.[112] Outside of fights, he made many other television appearances. The following table lists known viewership figures of his non-fight television appearances. For television viewership figures of his fights, seeBoxing career of Muhammad Ali: Television viewership.
Ali was also an amateur artist and made dozens of drawings and paintings in the 1970s. In 1977, Rodney Hilton Brown, who owned an art gallery in NYC, asked Ali if he was interested in painting. Ali took him up on the offer and produced several paintings for him to sell. Brown is the author ofMuhammad Ali: The Untold Story: Painter, Poet and Prophet.[230] In October 2021, 26 of his drawings and arts were placed on auction and sold for close to US$1 Million.[231][232]
Later life
By the end of his boxing career Ali had absorbed an estimated 200,000 hits.[233]
In 1984, Ali was diagnosed withParkinson's syndrome, which sometimes results from head trauma from violent physical activities such as boxing.[127][234][235] Ali still remained active during this time, later participating as a guest referee atWrestleMania I.[236][237]
Philanthropy, humanitarianism and politics
Ali was known for being a humanitarian[238] and philanthropist.[239] He focused on practicing hisIslamic duty of charity and good deeds, donating millions to charity organizations and disadvantaged people of all religious backgrounds. It is estimated that Ali helped to feed more than 22million people afflicted by hunger across the world.[240] Early in his career, one of his main focuses was youth education. He spoke at severalhistorically black colleges and universities about the importance of education and became the largest single black donor to theUnited Negro College Fund in 1967 by way of a $10,000 donation ($78,000 in 2020 USD). In late 1966, he also pledged to donate a total of $100,000 to the UNCF (specifically promising to donate much of the proceeds of his title defense against Cleveland Williams) and paid $4,500 per closed circuit installation at six HBCUs so they could watch his fights.[79]
Ali began visiting Africa, starting in 1964 when he visited Nigeria andGhana.[241] In 1974, he visited aPalestinian refugee camp inSouthern Lebanon, where Ali declared "support for the Palestinian struggle to liberate their homeland".[242] During that visit Ali also declared that the "United States is the stronghold of Zionism and imperialism."[243] In 1978, following his loss to Spinks and before winning the rematch, Ali visitedBangladesh and receivedhonorary citizenship there.[244][245][246] The same year, he participated inThe Longest Walk, a protest march in the United States in support of Native American rights, along with singerStevie Wonder and actorMarlon Brando.[247]
In early 1980, Ali was recruited by PresidentJimmy Carter for a diplomatic mission to Africa, in an effort to persuade a number of African governments to join the US-ledboycott of theMoscow Olympics in protest of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan. Having arrived inTanzania, Ali told cameras, "Russia is invading a Muslim country, Asiatic country," and that its probable intention to head tooil-richPersia to take wells and ports "could lead tonuclear war. My purpose in coming here was to try to stop that."[248] However, according to Ali biographer Thomas Hauser, "at best, it was ill-conceived; at worst, a diplomatic disaster." The Tanzanian government was insulted that Carter had sent an athlete to discuss a serious political issue. One official asked whether the United States would "sendChris Evert to negotiate with London". Consequently, Ali was only received by the youth and culture minister, rather than PresidentJulius Nyerere. Ali was unable to explain why the African countries should join the US boycott when it had failed to support the African boycott of the1976 Olympics (in protest ofApartheid in South Africa), although neither did theSoviet Union, and was unaware of the sentiment that the Soviet Union had backed some popular revolutions on the continent, although none of the countries on the itinerary were Soviet allies.[249][250] The Nigerian government also rebuffed him and confirmed that they would be participating in the Moscow Games. Ali did, however, convince the government ofKenya to boycott the Soviet Olympics.[251]
On January 19, 1981, in Los Angeles, Ali talked asuicidal man down from jumping off a ninth-floor ledge, an event that made national news.[252][253]
In 1984, Ali announced his support forthe re-election of United States PresidentRonald Reagan. When asked to elaborate on his endorsement of Reagan, Ali told reporters, "He's keeping God in schools and that's enough."[254] In 1985, he visited Israel to request the release of Muslim prisoners atAtlit detainee camp, which Israel declined.[255]
Around 1987, the California Bicentennial Foundation for the U.S. Constitution selected Ali to personify the vitality of the U.S. Constitution andBill of Rights. Ali rode on a float at the following year'sTournament of Roses Parade, launching the U.S. Constitution's 200th birthday commemoration.[256] In 1988, during theFirst Intifada, Ali participated in a Chicago rally in support ofPalestine.[242] The same year, he visitedSudan to raise awareness about the plight offamine victims.[257] According toPolitico, Ali supportedOrrin Hatch politically.[258] In 1989, he participated in an Indian charity event with theMuslim Educational Society inKozhikode, Kerala, along withBollywood actorDilip Kumar.[194]
Ali in 1997
In 1990, Ali traveled to Iraq prior to theGulf War and met with presidentSaddam Hussein in an attempt to negotiate the release of American hostages. Ali secured the release of the hostages, in exchange for promising Hussein that he would bring America "an honest account" of Iraq. Despite arranging the hostages' release, he received criticism from presidentGeorge H. W. Bush, andJoseph C. Wilson, the highest-ranking American diplomat in Baghdad.[259][260]
In 1994, Ali campaigned to the United States government to come to the aid of refugees afflicted by theRwandan genocide, and to donate to organizations helping Rwandan refugees.[240]
In 1996, he lit the flame at the1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia. It was watched by an estimated 3.5billion viewers worldwide.[225]
After Ali met a lesbian couple who were fans of his in 1997, he smiled and said to friend and biographer Thomas Hauser, "They look like they're happy together." Hauser wrote about the story, "The thought that Liz and Roz (the lesbian couple he met) were happy pleased Muhammad. Ali wanted people to be happy."[261]
On November 17, 2002, Ali went to Afghanistan as the "U.N. Messenger of Peace".[262] He was in Kabul for a three-day goodwill mission as a special guest of the UN.[263]
On September 1, 2009, Ali visitedEnnis, County Clare, Ireland, the home of his great-grandfather, Abe Grady, who emigrated to the U.S. in the 1860s, eventually settling in Kentucky.[264]
On July 27, 2012, Ali was a titular bearer of the Olympic flag during theopening ceremonies of the2012 Summer Olympics in London. He was helped to his feet by his wife Lonnie to stand before the flag due to his Parkinson's syndrome rendering him unable to carry it into the stadium.[265] The same year, he was awarded thePhiladelphia Liberty Medal in recognition of his lifelong efforts in activism, philanthropy and humanitarianism.[256][238]
Earnings
By 1978, Ali's total fight purse earnings were estimated to be nearly $60million[266] (inflation-adjusted$391 million), including an estimated $47.45million grossed between 1970 and 1978.[267] By 1980, his total fight purse earnings were estimated to be up to $70million[268] (inflation-adjusted $339million).
In 1978, Ali revealed that he was "broke" and several news outlets reported his net worth to be an estimated$3.5 million[267] (inflation-adjusted $17million). The press attributed his decline in wealth to several factors, including taxes consuming at least half of his income, management taking a third of his income,[267] his lifestyle, and spending on family, charity and religious causes.[268]
In 2006, Ali sold his name and image for $50million,[269] after whichForbes estimated his net worth to be $55million in 2006.[270] Following his death in 2016, his fortune was estimated to be between $50million and $80million.[271]
Declining health
I'm blessed and thankful to God that I understand he's trying me. This is a trial from God. He gave me this illness to remind me that I am not number one; He is.
—Muhammad Ali reflecting on having Parkinson's disease[272][273]
Ali's Parkinson's syndrome led to a gradual decline in his health, though he was still active into the early 2000s, promoting his own biopic,Ali, in 2001. That year he also contributed an on-camera segment to theAmerica: A Tribute to Heroes benefit concert.[274]
Ali andMichael J. Fox testify before a Senate committee on providing government funding to combat Parkinson's.
In 1998, Ali began working with actorMichael J. Fox, who has Parkinson's disease, to raise awareness and fund research for a cure. They made a joint appearance before Congress to push the case in 2002. In 2000, Ali worked withthe Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research to raise awareness and encourage donations for research.[275]
In February 2013, Ali's brotherRahaman Ali said Muhammad could no longer speak and could be dead within days.[276] Ali's daughter May May Ali responded to the rumors, stating that she had talked to him on the phone the morning of February 3 and he was fine.[277] On December 20, 2014, Ali was hospitalized for a mild case ofpneumonia.[278] Ali was once again hospitalized on January 15, 2015, for aurinary tract infection after being found unresponsive at a guest house in Scottsdale, Arizona.[279] He was released the next day.[280]
Death
Ali was hospitalized inScottsdale, Arizona, on June 2, 2016, with a respiratory illness. Though his condition was initially described as fair, it worsened, and he died the following day at the age of 74 fromseptic shock.[c]
News coverage and tributes
Following Ali's death, he was the number-one trending topic on Twitter for over 12 hours and on Facebook for several days.BET played their documentaryMuhammad Ali: Made In Miami.ESPN played four hours of non-stop commercial-free coverage of Ali. News networks, such asABC News,BBC,CNN, andFox News, also covered him extensively.[citation needed]
The day after Ali's death, theUFC paid tribute to Ali at theirUFC 199 event in a lengthy video tribute package, crediting Ali for his accomplishments and inspiring multiple UFC champions.[286]
If the measure of greatness is to gladden the heart of every human being on the face of the earth, then he truly was the greatest. In every way he was the bravest, the kindest and the most excellent of men.
Ali was inducted into theInternational Boxing Hall of Fame in its first year[298] and held wins over seven other Hall of Fame inductees during an era that has been called the golden age of heavyweight boxing.[299][300] His joint records of beating21 boxers for the world heavyweight title and winning 14 unified title bouts stood for 35 years.[d][e][301][302][303]
Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee. His hands can't hit what his eyes can't see. Now you see me, now you don't. George thinks he will, but I know he won't.
Ali often usedrhyme schemes and spoken word poetry when trash talking in boxing, and also delivered political poetry in his activism outside of boxing.[306][307][308] He played a role in the shaping of the black poetic tradition, paving the way forthe Last Poets in 1968,Gil Scott-Heron in 1970, and the emergence of hip-hop in the 1970s.[213] Ali has been referred to as "the first rapper".[309] As a "rhyming trickster", he was noted for his boasts, "funky delivery", "comical trash talk", and "endless quotables".[214]Rolling Stone notes his "freestyle skills" and his "rhymes, flow, and braggadocio" would "one day become typical ofold school MCs likeRun DMC andLL Cool J", and his "outsized ego foreshadowed the vainglorious excesses ofKanye West, while hisAfrocentric consciousness and cutting honesty pointed forward to modern bards likeRakim,Nas,Jay-Z, andKendrick Lamar."[215]
In 2006, the documentaryAli Rap was produced byESPN, withChuck D ofPublic Enemy as the host.[310] Other rappers narrated the documentary as well, includingDoug E. Fresh,Ludacris and Rakim who all spoke on Ali's behalf in the film.
Ali has been cited as an inspiration by many celebrated rappers throughout the following decades, such as LL Cool J,[214] Chuck D,[311] Jay-Z,Eminem,Sean Combs,Slick Rick, Nas andMC Lyte,[312] and is frequently mentioned in popular hip-hop songs.[312]
In Ali's hometown
In 1978, shortly after becoming heavyweight champion of the world for the third time, and three years before his permanent retirement, Ali received a round of accolades in his hometown of Louisville. In September, at a tribute ceremony held atFairgrounds Stadium, then-Governor of KentuckyJulian Carroll proclaimed 1978 the "Year of Ali" and presented to Ali the Governor's Distinguished Service Award. Carroll said he signed the proclamation because "no single day or week – or even month – ever could contain the deeds of this man."[313] In November, theLouisville Board of Aldermen voted 6–5 to rename downtown thoroughfare Walnut Street toMuhammad Ali Boulevard, via an ordinance shortly signed into law by then-MayorWilliam B. Stansbury.[314] This was controversial at the time, as within a week 12 of the 70 street signs were stolen.[315]
TheMuhammad Ali Center, alongside Interstate 64 on Louisville, Kentucky's riverfront
As the street renaming was under consideration, a committee of theJefferson County Public Schools (Kentucky) considered renaming Ali's alma mater,Central High School, in his honor. Despite an initial endorsement by then-Jefferson County Judge/Executive and current U.S. SenatorMitch McConnell, and an affirmative vote by the Jefferson CountyFiscal Court, the committee decided not to proceed, citing long-time school tradition and alumni disagreement, even though they urged other ways to honor Ali in the community.[316] In time, Muhammad Ali Boulevard—and Ali himself—came to be well accepted in his hometown.[315]
In November 2005, Ali and his wife Lonnie Ali opened the $54million, 93,000ft2, non-profitMuhammad Ali Center in downtown Louisville.[154][317] In addition to displaying his boxing memorabilia, the center focuses on core themes of peace, social responsibility, respect, and personal growth.[317][318][319]
On January 16, 2019, the Louisville Regional Airport Authority voted to change the name of the city's main airport to "Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport" in honor of Ali.[320] Then-Louisville mayor Greg Fischer upon the occasion said:
Muhammad Ali belonged to the world, but he only had one hometown, and fortunately, that is our great city of Louisville. Muhammad became one of the most well-known people to ever walk the Earth and has left a legacy of humanitarianism and athleticism that has inspired billions of people. It [is] important that we, as a city, further champion The Champ's legacy, and the airport renaming is a wonderful next step.[320]
On June 6, 2019, the airport unveiled its new logo, featuring "Ali's silhouette, arms up and victorious, against the background of a butterfly."[321]
Around the US and world
Martial artist and actorBruce Lee was influenced by Ali, whosefootwork he studied and incorporated into his own style while developingJeet Kune Do in the 1960s.[322]
In June 2007, Ali received an honorary doctorate of humanities atPrinceton University's 260th graduation ceremony.[334]
In 2015,Sports Illustrated renamed its Sportsman Legacy Award to theSports Illustrated's Muhammad Ali Legacy Award. The annual award was originally created in 2008 and honors former "sports figures who embody the ideals of sportsmanship, leadership and philanthropy as vehicles for changing the world". Ali first appeared on the magazine's cover in 1963 and went on to be featured on numerous covers during his storied career.[335]
TheSociety of Voice Arts and Sciences created the Muhammad Ali Voice of Humanity Honor in 2016, which is presented at its annual Voice Arts Awards. The award was created in collaboration with the Muhammad Ali Center and is presented to "an individual whose voice, through humanitarianism, activism or personal sacrifice, has made a decidedly positive impact on our national or global condition as a society". Sculptor Marc Mellon created the bronze sculpture for the award, which depicts Ali mid-speech.[336] Recipients of the honor include Dr. Henry Louis Gates, Ken Burns, Vance Jones, Lonnie Ali, Stacey Abrams, Wes Studi, and Manuela Testolini.[337]
In January 2017, the Muhammad Ali Commemorative Coin Act was introduced into the115th Congress but was not enacted.[338][339]
On May 31, 2025, the first full-body bronze statue of Ali in the United States was unveiled inLewiston, Maine, where he fought his second bout withSonny Liston.[1]
20th-century superlatives
By the end of the 20th century, Ali had made it onto severalsuperlatives lists or otherwise was mentioned in superlative terms covering the century or a large portion thereof.
Ali was named one of the 100 most influential Americans of the 20th century byLife magazine in 1990. In 1993, the Associated Press reported that Ali was tied withBabe Ruth as the most recognized athlete, out of over 800 dead or living athletes, in America. The study found that over 97% of Americans over 12 years of age identified both Ali and Ruth.[346] In 1999, he was one of three athletes, alongsidePelé andJackie Robinson, named inTime magazine's list of the100 Most Important People of the 20th Century.[347][348]
As a world champion boxer, activist and pop culture icon, Ali was the subject of numerous creative works including books, films, music, video games, TV shows, and other. Muhammad Ali was often dubbed the world's "most famous" person in the media.[351][352] Several of his fights were watched by an estimated1–2 billion viewers between 1974 and 1980, and his lighting of the torch at the 1996Atlanta Olympics was watched by an estimated 3.5billion viewers.[225]
Ali appeared on the cover ofSports Illustrated on 38 different occasions,[353] second only toMichael Jordan's 50.[354] He also appeared on the cover ofTime magazine 5 times.[355] In 2015,Harris Poll found that Ali was one of the three most recognizable athletes in the United States, along with Michael Jordan andBabe Ruth.[356]
On the set ofFreedom Road Ali met Canadian singer-songwriter Michel,[357] and subsequently helped create Michel's albumThe First Flight of the Gizzelda Dragon and an unaired television special featuring them both.[358]
Ali was the subject of the British television programThis Is Your Life in 1978 when he was surprised byEamonn Andrews.[359] Ali was featured inSuperman vs. Muhammad Ali, a 1978 DC Comics comic book pitting the champ against the superhero. In 1979, Ali guest starred as himself in an episode of the NBC sitcomDiff'rent Strokes. The show's title itself was inspired by the quote "Different strokes for different folks" popularized in 1966 by Ali, who also inspired the title of the 1967Syl Johnson song "Different Strokes", one of the mostsampled songs in pop music history.[360]
He also wrote several bestselling books about his career, includingThe Greatest: My Own Story,Healing: A Journal of Tolerance and Understanding, andThe Soul of a Butterfly. The Muhammad Ali effect, named after Ali, is a term that came into use in psychology in the 1980s, as he stated inThe Greatest: My Own Story: "I only said I was the greatest, not the smartest."[207] According to this effect, when people are asked to rate their intelligence and moral behavior in comparison to others, people will rate themselves as more moral, but not more intelligent than others.[361][362] Ali cooperated with Thomas Hauser on a biography,Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times. The oral history was released in 1991.
When We Were Kings, a 1996 documentary about theRumble in the Jungle, won theAcademy Award for Best Documentary Feature. The 2001 biopicAli garnered aBest Actor Oscar nomination forWill Smith for his portrayal of Ali. Prior to making the film, Smith rejected the role until Ali requested that he accept it. Smith said the first thing Ali told him was: "Man, you're almost pretty enough to play me."[363]
In 2002, Ali was honored with a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the entertainment industry.[364] His star is the only one to be mounted on a vertical surface, out of deference to his request that the name Muhammad—a name he shares withthe Islamic prophet—not be walked upon.[365][366]
Antoine Fuqua's documentaryWhat's My Name: Muhammad Ali was released in 2019. Then in September 2021, documentary filmmakerKen Burns released the four-part docuseriesMuhammad Ali, spanning over eight hours on Ali's life. The series, which Burns began developing in early 2016, was broadcast onPBS.[369][370]Dave Zirin, who watched an 8-hour rough cut of this documentary, called it "utterly outstanding" and said "the footage they found will blow minds".[371]
While an officially authorized musicalAli, based on Ali's life, has been planned, it has been postponed indefinitely.[372]
^"boxing champion andactivist";[4] "one of the country's most recognized anti-waractivists"[5] "professional boxer and socialactivist";[6] "the professional boxer andactivist";[7] "Muhammad Ali serves as reminder that radicalactivist athletes can become mainstreamed."[8]
^Some sources claim thatJoe Louis has actually defeated 22 fighters for the world heavyweight title; that would make Louis the sole holder of the eventually broken record.
^abcGrimsley, Will (May 25, 1965)."Muslims gull Clay, says mother".Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. Associated Press. p. 14.Archived from the original on March 15, 2025. RetrievedMarch 13, 2025.
^Vachss, Andrew (2003).Only Child. Vintage. p. 89.Archived from the original on May 27, 2016. RetrievedJune 6, 2016. Vachss further explains the way such a fix would have been engineered inTwo Trains Running. Pantheon. 2005. pp. 160–165, 233. Archived fromthe original on July 16, 2016. RetrievedJune 4, 2016.
^Barnes, Bart (October 15, 1980)."Ali Faces Ring Suspension".The Washington Post.Archived from the original on August 28, 2017. RetrievedApril 5, 2023.
^APArchived November 12, 2020, at theWayback Machine "Muhammad Ali's doctor doubts boxing led to Parkinson's",Associated Press viaCBC, June 6. 2016. Retrieved September 1, 2018.
^abThomas, Robert McG. Jr. (September 20, 1984)."Change In Drug Helps Ali Improve".The New York Times. pp. D–29.Archived from the original on June 16, 2013. RetrievedMarch 9, 2009.
^"Ali to try again?".The Daytona Beach Sunday News-Journal. Associated Press. August 16, 1981.Archived from the original on August 28, 2021. RetrievedJune 4, 2016.
^abcRush, George; Joanna Molloy; Lola Ogunnaike; Kasia Anderson (March 18, 2001)."Ali Daughter Tosses Book in Ring".New York Daily News. Archived fromthe original on October 18, 2016. RetrievedOctober 15, 2016.
^Handler, M. S. (March 9, 1964)."Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad".The New York Times.Archived from the original on July 20, 2014. RetrievedAugust 1, 2008.(subscription required)
^"The Champ and Mr. X".National Review. February 29, 2016.Archived from the original on February 1, 2018. RetrievedNovember 18, 2016.
^Burkett, Harry, ed. (2007). "Historical Cards: WrestleMania I (03-31-1985)".PWI 2007 Wrestling Almanac & Book of facts. Blue Bell, Pennsylvania:London Publishing. p. 84.ISBN978-25274-00389.
^Reilly, Katie (June 4, 2016)."Behind TIME's New Muhammad Ali Cover".Time. Archived fromthe original on December 13, 2023. RetrievedNovember 3, 2023.Ali—who has been featured on the cover of TIME four times (before this time)—first appeared on the cover in the issue published March 22, 1963, when his name was still Cassius Clay.
^Allison, Scott T.; Messick, David M.; Goethals, George R. (1989). "On Being Better but not Smarter than Others: The Muhammad Ali Effect".Social Cognition.7 (3):275–295.doi:10.1521/soco.1989.7.3.275.
Muhammad Ali: American boxer, inEncyclopædia Britannica Online, by Thomas Hauser, Adam Augustyn, Piyush Bhathya, Yamini Chauhan, John M. Cunningham, Richard Pallardy, Michael Ray, Emily Rodriguez, Surabhi Sinha, Amy Tikkanen, Grace Young and The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
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