 Title page of 1992 edition | |
| Author | Lewis Gompertz |
|---|---|
| Language | English |
| Subject | Animal ethics,veganism,social justice |
| Genre | Treatise |
| Publisher | Westley & Parrish |
Publication date | 1824 |
| Publication place | United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland |
| Media type | |
| Pages | xi + 175 |
| OCLC | 8671020 |
Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes[note 1] is an 1824 philosophical treatise by English philosopher, writer, inventor, and social reformerLewis Gompertz. One of the earliest works to systematically argue for themoral consideration of animals, it critiques the use of animals for labour, food, clothing, and experimentation, and promotes what would now be recognised as avegan ethic. Gompertz maintains that animals, like humans, aresentient beings capable of suffering, and that causing harm to them is morally indefensible.
The book also addresses broader issues ofsocial justice, including theoppression of women and the poor, and offers criticisms of contemporary laws such asMartin's Act and theVagrancy Act 1824. Gompertz supports legal reform and the development of a rational, egalitarian ethics extending beyond the human species. The work is regarded as a foundational text in the history of animal ethics and theanimal rights movement.
Lewis Gompertz (1783/4–1861) was an early advocate for themoral consideration of animals, a mechanical inventor, and a co-founder of theSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (later the RSPCA). Born into a prominent Jewish family in London, he argued against all forms of animal exploitation and lived according to his principles, abstaining from animal products and using mechanical alternatives to avoid animal labour. His 1824 treatise,Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes, combined philosophical arguments with practical proposals for animal welfare and social reform, including critiques of capitalism and the subjugation of women. After resigning from the SPCA due to sectarian exclusions, he founded theAnimals' Friend Society, which he and his wife managed until poor health forced his retirement. He also published widely on mechanical innovations designed to reduce animal suffering.[1]
Gompertz begins by reflecting on societal progress and the hope that ethical improvements can extend to animals. He critiques the mistreatment of labour animals like horses, contrasts methods of slaughter, and argues that cruelty arises from improper education. He emphasises the similarities between humans and animals, suggesting that differences in their experiences are due to physical variations rather than moral distinctions. Philosophically, he explores the possibility of a shared future state for both humans and animals.
He then contrasts the lives of humans and animals in nature versus civilisation, arguing that human dominance stems from habit and societal norms, not inherent superiority. Gompertz questions whether increasing happiness would lead to overpopulation of animals and discusses the societal structures that perpetuate exploitation, particularly of animals, women, and the lower classes. He also addresses thesuffering of wild animals, noting their constant exposure to hunger, fear, and predation, and controversially suggests that the extinction of carnivorous species might reduce overall suffering in the wild.
Philosophical reflections follow, where Gompertz introduces moral axioms and theorems, including those on personal identity, punishment, and future existence for animals. He argues that reason supports the idea of animals having similar moral rights to humans, challenging conventional ideas of human superiority.
Next, Gompertz presents a dialogue debating the morality of slaughtering animals for food, critiquing widely accepted practices and raising concerns about humane treatment. He argues that consuming milk, eggs, and other animal products is exploitative, advocating for avegan lifestyle. He also extends his critique to the use of animal products like leather, silk, and wool, questioning the morality of benefiting from substances obtained through harm. He also discusses the ethical use of vegetables, suggesting that plant-based diets align better with moral principles.
Gompertz questions the morality of using horses for labour, arguing that such practices are based on human selfishness rather than necessity. He compares these actions to broader societal exploitation, insisting that reason and conscience should guide treatment of animals.
He critiquesMartin's Act, which sought to prevent cruelty to cattle, suggesting more comprehensive legal protections for animals. He then discusses theVagrancy Act 1824 andtreadmills, comparing the harsh treatment of humans under these laws to the cruelty inflicted on animals.
Finally, Gompertz proposes a bill to strengthen animal protection laws, emphasising the moral imperative of preventing cruelty to animals. His work lays a foundation for modern arguments in favour ofanimal rights and ethical veganism, advocating for the humane treatment of all living beings.
A contemporary review in theMonthly Review described the book's structure as "puzzling", but praised its moral outlook. The reviewer noted that Gompertz advanced "excellent principles, as applied to all points of a public nature", and that the overall "tendency of most of the author's proposals and observations is humane and laudable." While acknowledging certain flaws in the book's judgments, the review concluded that it deserved the "attention of magistrates and men in power".[2]
In 1839, the astronomer and naturalistT. Forster published a treatise addressed to Gompertz titledPhilozoia, or Moral Reflections on the Actual Condition of the Animal Kingdom, and the Means of Improving the Same.[3]
Gompertz's work was later included inHenry S. Salt's bibliography of animal rights literature in his 1892 bookAnimals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress.[3]
Gary L. Francione and Anne E. Charlton have describedMoral Inquiries as "one of the most progressive and radical books on animal ethics ever written, yet virtually unknown".[4] In the foreword to the 1992 edition,Peter Singer recounted his surprise upon discovering Gompertz's work, noting that many of Gompertz's arguments closely resembled those later taken up by theanimal liberation movement.[5]
Stephen Bostock highlighted Gompertz's methodical approach to ethics, observing that his work "attempts to argue rigorously from firm foundations with an elaborate apparatus of definitions, axioms and theorems". Bostock also commended Gompertz's fairness toward opponents, his intellectual honesty, and the continued relevance of his answers to contemporary ethical questions.[6]
In 2024, to mark the book's bicentennial, the organisationAnimal Ethics republishedMoral Inquiries as a free digital edition. The organisation described it as the "most significant work in animal ethics until the late 20th century", citing its early advocacy of ideas now associated with veganism,antispeciesism, and concern forwild animal suffering.[7]
Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes was printed byRichard Taylor and published by Westley & Parrish, who sold it from their premises oppositeSt. Clement Danes on theStrand, London.[8]
In 1992, a new edition was published byCentaur Press, edited byPeter Singer, who also wrote the foreword. In it, Singer remarked on his surprise at discovering Gompertz's work and noted its striking resemblance to arguments later advanced by theanimal liberation movement.[5]
A further edition was released in 1997 byEdwin Mellen Press, edited byCharles R. Magel.[9]
