Mor lam (Lao: ໝໍລຳ;Thai/Isan: หมอลำ[mɔ̌ːlám];Thai:หมอลำ,RTGS: mo lam,[mɔ̌ːlām]) is a traditionalLao form ofsong originating inLaos that is also popular inIsan, where the majority of the population is ethnic Lao.

Morlam (or molam) is a traditional storytelling and entertainment form in the Southeast Asian country of Laos, and the northeastern part of Thailand (formerly part of Laos), known asIsaan.

The termmolam is a combination of the termmo, meaning “master,” andlam, meaning to sing in a style calledlam. Literally then,molam means “master of thelam singing style,” but the term is also used more generally to performances in the lam genre. It refers to both the music and the artist. Otherromanisations used includemor lum,maw lam,maw lum,moh lam,mhor lum, andmolum. In Laos, both the music and singer is calledmor lam (ໝໍລຳ), and when referencing the subgenre/ region of origin, the term "lam" is used, followed by the subgenre/region name.

The characteristic feature oflam singing is the use of a flexible melody tailored to thetones of the words in the text. Traditionally, the tune was developed by the singer as an interpretation of aklon poem and accompanied primarily by thekhene (afree reed mouth organ). The modern form is frequentlycomposed and uses electrifiedinstruments. Traditional forms (and someLao genres) use a slower tempo than the quickertempo and faster deliveries of more modern lam music. Strong rhythmic accompaniments, vocal leaps, and a conversational style of singing distinguishlam from Americanrap.

Typically featuring a theme ofunrequited love,mor lam often reflects the difficulties of life in rural Isan and Laos, leavened with wry humour. In its heartland, performances are an essential part of festivals and ceremonies.Lam has gained a profile outside its native regions from the spread of migrant workers, for whom it remains an important cultural link with home.

In Laos, morlam / mor lam/ molam /mo lam refers to the traditional folk music genre and also the singer, and when referencing the subgenre, the word ລຳ,lam/lám/ is used followed by the specific genre/beat/region name, ex: lam salavan. In northern Laos, the regional folk music styles are referred to as ຂັບ,khap/kʰáp/, and signifies 'to sing' or a 'song'. The Lao-speaking people across the river in Isan call the music หมอลำ,mo lam,/mɔ̌ːlám/, Laos, the equivalent term ໝໍລຳ,molam/mɔ̌ːlám/Lao ໝໍ and Isan หมอ, bothmo/mɔ̌ː/, (as well as Thai หมอ,mo/mɔ̌ː/) refers specifically to an 'expert', 'shaman', or 'doctor'. The northern Lao terms ขับ,khap/kʰáp/ andmokhap/mɔ̌ːkʰáp/, are not used in Isan, but are likely still used in some Lao-speaking parts ofLoei,Uttaradit, andPhitsanulok that were settled by people originally from northern Laos, however,khap is understood as a rarer word for 'to sing' or 'song' and in reference to specifically northern styles oflam. Northern Lao areas refer to thekhène/khaen player as themokhène/mokhaen just as in the rest of Laos and Isan.

Instandard Thai, the music and the singer, as adopted from Isan usage, is also known as หมอลำ,molam, but because of the tone differences is generally pronounced/mɔ̌ːlàm/. It is also common to "correct" or "translate" the Isan term into standard Thai as หมอรำ,mo ram/mɔ̌ːram/, as Thai รำ,ram/ram/, is cognate to Lao ລຳ and Isan ลำ and shares the same meaning. Although Thai ขับkhap/kʰàp/

As the lowland areas of Laos and Isan are essentially one shared cultural region ofLao people, few differences, especially at its most traditional level, are present to distinguish traditional forms on either side. Throughout the Lao-speaking heartlands, the only accompaniment to performances ofkhap andlam was the local free reed mouth-organ, thekhène (BGN/PCGN)/khaen (RTGS). Similar in many ways to the function of the bagpipe in theScottish Highlands, thekhène/khaen provides not only the melody but can also be used to provide a drone as it is played with circular breathing. So important is thekhène/khaen in Lao music, the instrument even came to be used in the Lao classical music ensemble known assép noy (BGN/PCGN)/sep noi (RTGS), where most of the instruments are influenced by the veneer of Indian musical traditions as well as classical musical traditions of neighboring Thailand, Cambodia, and Java.^[1]

Inlam styles of central and southern Laos and most of Isan, traditional performances often included ensembles. Most northernkhap styles relied solely on thekhène/khaen, except for a few styles, such as those fromLuang Phrabang, many of which were adaptations of the local classical music traditions as the city was the seat of the Lao monarchy until its forced abdication in 1975.^[1] The southernlam styles, heavily influenced by the ancient musical traditions of the Mon-Khmer peoples, such as theMon,Khmer,Kuy andBru that either were the former inhabitants or continue to live amongst the Tai peoples that now make up the majority in the Lao-speaking region.^[1]

Most modern styles, including the northernkhap varieties, are generally heard with ensembles consisting of a mixture of Western instruments and traditional ones. Contemporary ensembles often feature instruments such as:

1. Electric Guitars (Effects:Chorus,Wah Wah / Technique:Tremolo)
2. Electric Bass (Technique:Slap,Expressive,Slide (either as sound effect/VST orglissando on the instrument)
3. Drum Kit / Drum Set (tends topan in the audience perspective because of the drum VST), Percussion (known to havecongas,cowbells,ching, andchab)
4. Accordions (Sound:Musette or Detuned)
5. Saxophones (Type:Alto,Tenor / Techniques:Vibrato,Trill)
6. Violins, and/orString Orchestra (Type: Slow or Sustain Strings / Technique:Legato)
7. Keyboard/organs (such as theHammond forRock genre use,FarfisaCombo Organs, andYamahaYC Combo)

In the late 18th and 19th centuries, themusic of Laos began to spread into the Thai heartland, extending Lao influence to Siam. Forced population transfers from Laos into the newly acquired region of Isan and what is nowCentral Thailand accelerated the rapid adoption ofmor lam. Even KingMongkut'svice-kingPinklao became enamoured of it. But in 1857,^[2] following the vice-king's death, Mongkut banned public performances, citing the threat it posed to Thai culture and its alleged role in causing adrought.^[3] Performance ofmor lam thereafter was a largely local affair, confined to events such asfestivals in Isan and Laos. However, asIsan people began to migrate throughout the rest of the country, the music came with them. The first majormor lam performance of the 20th century in Bangkok took place at theRajadamnern Stadium in 1946.^[4] Even then, the number of migrant workers from Isan was fairly small, andmor lam was paid little attention by the outside world.

In the 1950s and 1960s, there were attempts in both Thailand and Laos to appropriatelam for political purposes. TheUSIS in Thailand and both sides in theLaotian Civil War (the "Secret War") recruitedmor lam singers to insertpropaganda into their performances, in hopes persuading the rural population to support their cause. The Thai attempt was unsuccessful, taking insufficient account of performers' practices and the audiences' demands, but it was more successful in Laos. The victorious Communists continued to maintain a propaganda troupe even after seizing power in 1975.^[5]

Mor lam started to spread in Thailand in the late-1970s and early-1980s, when more and more people left rural Isan to seek work.Mor lam performers began to appear on television, led byBanyen Rakgaen, and the music soon gained a national profile. It remains an important link to home for Isan migrants in the capital city, wheremor lamclubs andkaraokebars are meeting places for those newly arrived. Though Mor lam spread in Thailand, it was popular only among the ethnic Lao people from Isan, and not Thai people, as this type of music was viewed as inferior; In Bangkok, it was viewed as music for the low class or rural people.

Contemporarymor lam is very different from that of previous generations. None of the traditional Isan genres is commonly performed today; instead singers perform three-minute songs combininglam segments withluk thung^[6] orpop style sections, while comedians perform skits between blocks of songs.Mor lam sing performances typically consist of medleys ofluk thung andlam songs, with electric instruments dominant and bawdy repartee.Sing comes from the English word 'racing' (a reference to the music's origin among Isan's biker fraternity;pai sing means 'to go racing about on motorbikes').^[7]

Thai academic Prayut Wannaudom has argued that modernmor lam is increasingly sexualised and lacking in the moral teachings which it traditionally conveyed, and that commercial pressures encourage rapid production and imitation rather than quality and originality. On the other hand, these adaptations have allowedmor lam not only to survive, but itself spread into the rest of Thailand and internationally, validating Isan and Lao culture and providing role-models for the young.^[8]

Professor Charles F. Keyes argues for the value of the ancient forms asgeomythology: "The Thai-Lao people of northeastern Thailand have a well-developed tradition of 'legends' (nithān) which has been perpetuated in past through the media of folk opera ... known asmō lam mū ... no small number record[ing] events which happened 'long ago' on theKhorat Plateau... [N]ot historical accounts, they are not totally lacking in historical value. A number ... make reference to places which can be identified as being the sites of the ancient towns.... [T]he literature of the region has yet to be fully inventoried, much less analyzed", and adds in a footnote: "Unfortunately, most of these publications have had little circulation outside of the folk opera troupes for which they were intended." He next comments on fivetoponyms mentioned in the myth ofPhadaeng and Nang Ai,^[9] and compares these with those in the "Accounts of Fā Dāēet-Song Yāng".^[10]

There are many forms ofmor lam. There can be no definitive list as they are not mutually exclusive, while some forms are confined to particular localities or have different names in different regions. Typically the categorisation is by region inLaos and by genre inIsan, although both styles are popular in the other region. The traditional forms of Isan are historically important, but are now rarely heard:

• lam phi fa (ລຳຜີຟ້າ, ลำผีฟ้า,IPA:[lámpʰǐːfâː]) — a ritual to propitiate spirits in cases of possession. Musically it derived fromlam tang yao; however, it was performed not by trained musicians but by those (most commonly old women) who thought themselves to have been cured by the ritual.^[11]
• mor lam kon (ໝໍລຳກອນ, หมอลำกลอน,IPA:[mɔ̌ː.lámkɔ̀ːn]) — a vocal "battle" between the sexes. In Laos it is known aslam tat. Performances traditionally lasted all night, and consisted of first two, then three parts:
  • lam tang san (ລຳທາງສ້ັນ, ลำทางสั้น,IPA:[lámtʰáːŋsān]) — ("short form") took up the bulk of the time, with the singers deliveringgon poems a few minutes in length, performing alternately for about half an hour each from evening until about an hour before dawn. They would pretend gradually to fall in love, sometimes with rather explicit sexual banter.
  • lam tang nyao (ລຳທາງຍາວ, ลำทางยาว,IPA:[lámtʰáːŋɲáːw]) — ("long form"), a representation of the lovers' parting performed slowly and in a speech rhythm for about a quarter of an hour.
  • lam toei (ລຳເຕີ້ຍ, ลำเต้ย,IPA:[lámtɤ̂j]) — was introduced in the mid-20th century. Similar in length to thelam tang nyao, it is fast and light-hearted, with metrical texts falling into three categories:toei thammada ("normal toei"), usinggon texts in Isan;toei Phama ("Burmese toei"), usingcentral ornorthern Thai texts and forms; andtoei Khong ("Mekong toei"), again central or northern Thai in origin. It uses the same scale aslam yao.^[12]
• lam chotkae orlam chot (ລຳໂຈດແກ້, ลำโจทย์แก้, IPA:IPA:[lámtɕòːt.kɛ̂ː] or ລຳໂຈທຍ໌, ลำโจทย์,IPA:[lám.tɕòːt]) is a variant oflam kon formerly popular in the Khon Kaen area, in which the singers (often both male) asked one another questions on general knowledge topics — religion, geography, history etc. — trying to catch out their opponent.
• mor lam mu (ໝໍລຳໝູ່, หมอลำหมู่,IPA:[mɔ̌ː.lámmūː]) — folk opera, developed in the mid-20th century.Lam mu is visually similar to central Thailikay, but the subject matter (mainly Jataka stories) derived fromlam rueang (the subgenre oflam phuen) and the music fromlam tang nyao. It was originally more serious thanlam plern and required more skilled performers, but in the late-20th century the two converged to a style strongly influenced by central Thai and Western popular music and dance. Both have now declined in popularity and are now rare.^[13]
• mor lam phoen (ໝໍລຳເພີນ, หมอลำเพลิน,IPA:[mɔ̌ː.lámpʰɤ́ːn]) — a celebratory narrative, performed by a group. It originated around the same time aslam mu, but used a more populist blend of song and dance. The material consisted of metrical verses sung in theyao scale, often with a speech-rhythm introduction.^[13]
• lam phuen (ລຳພື້ນ, ลำพื้น,IPA:[lám.pʰɯ̂ːn]) — recital of locallegends orJataka stories, usually by a male singer, with khene accompaniment. In the sub-genre oflam rueang (ລຳເຣື່ອງ, ลำเรื่อง,IPA:[lám.rɯ̄aŋ]), sometimes performed by women, the singer acts out the various characters in costume. Performance of one complete story can last for one or two whole nights. This genre is now extremely rare, and may be extinct.^[4]

Isan has regional styles, but these are styles of performance rather than separate genres. The most important of the styles wereKhon Kaen andUbon, each taking their cue from the dominant form oflam gon in their area: thelam jotgae of Khon Kaen, with its role of displaying and passing on knowledge in various fields, led to a choppy,recitative-style delivery, while the love stories of Ubon promoted a slower and more fluent style. In the latter half of the 20th century the Ubon style came to dominate; the adaptation of Khon Kaen material to imitate the Ubon style was sometimes called theChaiyaphum style.^[14]

TheLao regional styles are divided into the southern and central styles (lam) and the northern styles (khap). The northern styles are more distinct as the terrain of northern Laos has made communications there particularly difficult, while in southern and central Laos cross-fertilisation has been much easier. Northern Lao singers typically perform only one style, but those in the south can often perform several regional styles as well as some genres imported from Isan.^[15]

The main Lao styles are:^[16]

• Lam Sithandone (ລຳສີທັນດອນ, ลำสีทันดร) (also calledLam Si Pan Don [ລຳສີພັນດອນ, ลำสีพันดอน]), from Champassak is similar in style to thelam gon of Ubon. It is accompanied by a solo khene, playing in asan mode, while the vocal line shifts betweensan andyao scales. The rhythm of the vocal line is also indeterminate, beginning in speech rhythm and shifting to a metrical rhythm.
• Lam Som (Lao:ລຳຊອມ,Thai:ลําซอม) is rarely performed and may now be extinct. From Champassak, the style is hexatonic, using theyao scale plus a supertonic C, making a scale of A-B-C-D-E-G. It uses speech rhythm in the vocal line, with a slow solo khene accompaniment in meter. It is similar to Isan'slam phuen. BothLam Som andLam Sithandone lack the descending shape of the vocal line used in the other southern Lao styles.
• Lam Khon Savane (ລຳຄອນສະຫວັນ, ลำคอนสะหวัน,IPA:[lámkʰɔ́ːn.sā.wǎn]) from Savannakhet is one of the most widespread genres. It uses thesan scale, with a descending vocal line over a more rigidly metrical ensemble accompaniment.Lam Ban Xoc (ລຳບ້ານຊອກ, ลำบ้านซอก,IPA:[lámbâːn.sɔ̂ːk]) andLam Mahaxay (ລຳມະຫາໄຊ, มหาไซ,IPA:[lámmā.hǎːsáj]) are musically very similar, butBan Xoc is usually performed only on ceremonial occasions whileMahaxay is distinguished by a long high note preceding each descent of the vocal line.
• Lam Phu Thai (ລຳຜູ້ໄທ, ลำผู้ไท,IPA:[lámpʰȕːtʰáj]) uses theyao scale, with a descending vocal line and ensemble accompaniment in meter.
• Lam Tang Vay (ລຳຕັງຫວາຍ, ลำตังหวาย,IPA:[lámtàŋ.wǎːj]) is a Lao version ofMon-Khmer music, with a descending ensemble accompaniment.
• Lam Saravane (ລຳສາລະວັນ, ลำสาละวัน [ลำสุวรรณ],IPA:[lámsǎː.lā.wán]) is also of Mon-Khmer origin. It uses theyao scale. The descending vocal line is in speech rhythm, while the khene and drum accompaniment is in meter.
• Khap Thum Luang Phrabang (ຂັບທຸ້ມຫລວງພະບາງ, ขับทุ้มหลวงพระบาง,IPA:[kʰáptʰȕmlǔa̯ŋ.pʰā(ʔ).bàːŋ]) is related to the court music ofLuang Phrabang, but transformed into a folk-song style. The singer and audience alternately sing lines to a set melody, accompanied by an ensemble.
• Khap Xieng Khouang (ຂັບຊຽງຂວາງ, ขับเซียงขวาง,IPA:[kʰápsíaŋ.kʰwǎːŋ]) also calledKhap Phuan (ຂັບພວນ, ขับพวน) uses theyao scale and is typically sung metrically by male singers and non-metrically by women.
• Khap Ngeum (ຂັບງຶມ, ขับงึม,IPA:[kʰáp.ŋɯ́m]) uses theyao scale. It alternates declaimed line from the singer and non-metrical khene passages, at a pace slow enough to allow improvisation.
• Khap Xam Neua (ຂັບຊຳເໜຶອ, ขับซำเหนือ,IPA:[kʰápsámnɯ̌a]) uses theyao scale. Singers are accompanied by a solo khene, declaiming lines each ending in a cadence.
• Khap Tai Dam (ຂັບໄທດຳ, ขับไทดำ,IPA:[kʰáptʰáj.dām]) used forTai dam people.

Below is a comparative table of regionalmor lam styles, sourced from Compton (1979).

Traditionally, youngmor lam were taught by established artists, paying them for their teaching with money or in kind. The education focused on memorising the texts of theverses to be sung; these texts could be passed on orally or in writing, but they always came from a written source. Since only men had access to education, it was only men who wrote the texts. The musical education was solely by imitation.Khaen-players typically had no formal training, learning the basics of playing from friends or relatives and thereafter again relying on imitation.^[19] With the decline of the traditional genres, this system has fallen into disuse; the emphasis on singing ability (or looks) is greater, while the lyrics of a brief modern song present no particular challenge of memorisation.

The social status ofmor lam is ambiguous. Even in the Isan heartland, Miller notes a clear division between the attitudes of rural and urban people: the former seemor lam as "teacher, entertainer, moral force, and preserver of tradition", while the latter, "hold mawlum singers in low esteem, calling them country bumpkins, reactionaries, and relegating them to among the lower classes since they make their money by singing and dancing".^[20]

InLaos,lam may be performed standing (lam yuen) or sitting (lam nang). Northernlam is typicallylam yuen and southernlam is typicallylam nang. InIsanlam was traditionally performed seated, with a small audience surrounding the singer, but over the latter half of the 20th century the introduction of stages and amplification allowed a shift to standing performances in front of a larger audience.^[21]

Live performances are now often large-scale events, involving severalsingers, adance troupe andcomedians. The dancers (orhang khreuang) in particular often wear spectacularcostumes, while the singers may go through several costume changes in the course of a performance. Additionally, smaller-scale, informal performances are common at festivals,temple fairs and ceremonies such asfunerals andweddings. These performances often includeimprovised material between songs and passages of teasing dialogue (Isan สอย,soi) between the singer and members of the audience.

Lam singing is characterised by the adaptation of thevocal line to fit thetones of the words used.^[22] It also featuresstaccato articulation and rapid shifting between the limited number ofnotes in the scale being used, commonly delivering around four syllables per second.^[23] There are twopentatonic scales, each of which roughly corresponds to intervals of a westerndiatonic major scale as follows:

The actualpitches used vary according to the particular khene accompanying the singer.^[24] The khene itself is played in one of sixmodes based on the scale being used.^[25]

Because Thai and Lao do not includephonemicstress, the rhythm used in their poetry is demarcative, i.e., based on the number of syllables rather than on the number of stresses.^[26] Ingonverse (the most common form of traditionallam text) there are seven basic syllables in each line, divided into three and four syllablehemistiches. When combined with the musicalbeat, this produces a natural rhythm of four on-beat syllables, three off-beat syllables, and a final one beatrest:

In actual practice this pattern is complicated by the subdivision of beats into even ordotted two-syllable pairs and the addition of prefix syllables which occupy the rest at the end of the previous line; each line may therefore include eleven or twelve actual syllables.^[27] In the modern form, there are suddentempo changes from the slow introduction to the faster main section of the song. Almost every contemporarymor lam song features the followingbasslinerhythm, which is often ornamentedmelodically or rhythmically, such as by dividing thecrotchets intoquavers:

Theching normally play asyncopated rhythm on theoff-beat, giving the music a characteristically quick rhythm and tinny sound.

Mor lam is traditionally sung inLao. The subject matter varied according to the genre: love in thelam gon of Ubon; general knowledge in thelam jot of Khon Kaen; orJataka stories inlam phun. The most common verse form was the four-linegon stanza with seven main syllables per line, although in Khon Kaen the technical subject matter led to the use of a free-form series of individual lines, calledgon gap.^[14] In Laos, it is the regional styles which determine the form of the text. Each style may use a metrical or a speech-rhythm form, or both; where the lines are metrical, thelam styles typically use seven syllables, as in Isan, while thekhap styles use four or five syllables per line.^[28] The slower pace of some Lao styles allows the singer to improvise the verse, but otherwise the text is memorised.^[29]

In recent decades, the Ubon style has come to dominatelam in Isan, while the central Thai influence has led to most songs being written in a mix of Isan andThai. Unrequited love is a prominent theme, although this is laced with a considerable amount of humour. Many songs feature a loyal boy or girl who stays at home in Isan, while his or her partner goes to work as a migrant labourer in Bangkok and finds a new, richer lover.

Thegon verses inlam tang san were typically preceded by a slower, speech-rhythm introduction, which included the wordso la no ("oh my dear", an exhortation to the listeners to pay attention) and often a summary of the content of the poem.^[30] From this derives thegroen (Thai เกริ่น) used in many modern songs: a slow, sung introduction, generally accompanied by the khene, introducing the subject of the song, and often including theo la naw. (sample) Thepleng (Thai เพลง) is a sungverse, often in central Thai. (sample), while the actuallam (Thai ลำ) appears as a chorus betweenpleng sections. (sample)

As fewmor lam artists write all their own material, many of them are extremely prolific, producing severalalbums each year. Major singers release their recordings onaudio tape,CD andVCD formats. The album may take its name from a title track, but others are simply given a series number.

Mor lam VCDs can also often be used forkaraoke. A typical VCDsong video consists of a performance, a narrativefilm, or bothintercut. The narrative depicts the subject matter of the song; in some cases, the lead role in the film is played by the singer. In the performance, the singer performs the song in front of a static group of dancers, typically female. There may be a number of these recordings in different costumes, and costumes may be modern or traditional dress; the singer often wears the same costume in different videos on the same album. The performance may be outdoors or in astudio; studio performances are often given apsychedelic animatedbackdrop. Videos from Laos tend to be much more basic, with lower production values.

Some of the most popular current artists areBanyen Rakgan,Chalermphol Malaikham,Somjit Borthong,Pornsak Songsaeng,Jintara Poonlarp,Siriporn Ampaipong andVieng Narumon. In 2001, the first album byDutch singerChristy Gibson was released.

In 2000, British musicianJah Wobble released the albumMolam Dub (30 Hertz Records), a fusion of his reggae-influencedbass guitar with guest appearances by Laotian singers and performers.^[31] In 2007, singerJonny Olsen released the first evermor lam album by a Westerner, or "farang" in Laos.)

There are several popular venues wheremor lam andluk thung music are performed. These venues usually carry the word "Isan" in their names. such as "Tawan Daeng Isan" and "Isan Isan" in Bangkok.

1. Dao Bandon
2. Pornsak Songsaeng
3. Sommainoi Duangcharoen
4. Siriporn Ampaipong
5. Somjit Borthong
6. Noknoi Uraiporn
7. Sathit Thongjan
8. Ki Daophet Niuhuang
9. Jintara Poonlarp
10. Honey Sri-Isan
11. Man Maneewan
12. Monkhaen Kaenkoon
13. Maithai Huajaisilp
14. Dueanphen Amnuaiporn
15. Saeng-arun Bunyu
16. Banyen Rakgan
17. Chalermpol Malakham
18. Poyfai Malaiporn
19. Christy Gibson
20. Tai Orathai
21. Phai Phongsathon
22. Mike Phiromphon
23. Yinglee Srijumpol
24. Ble Patumrach R-Siam
25. Lamyai Haithongkham
26. Moukdavanyh Santiphone
27. Vieng Narumon

• Lao music

• Alexander, Geoff.Introduction from The Academic Film Archive of North America. Accessed 13 May 2005.
• Broughton, Simon (ed).World Music Volume 2. Rough Guides (2000).
• Chawiwan Damnoen.Mo Lam Singing of Northeast Thailand (CD). World Music Library (1991).
• Compton, Carol. 1979.Courting poetry in Laos: a textual and linguistic analysis. Northern Illinois Center for Southeast Asian Studies.
• Miller, Terry; Williams, Sean (April 1998).Garland Encyclopedia of World Music (Book 4); Southeast Asia (1st ed.). Routledge.ISBN 9780824060404.
• Miller, Terry E.Performing Isan-Style Lam in Laos: an Expression of Pan-Laoism or Thai Hegemony Accessed 13 May 2005.
• Miller, Terry E. (1985).Traditional Music of the Lao: Kaen Playing and Mawlam Singing in North-east Thailand. Greenwood Press.ISBN 0-313-24765-X.
• Mosel, James N. (1959).Sound and Rhythm in Thai and English Verse, Pasa lae Nangsue.
• Prayut WannaudomThe Collision between Local Performing Arts and Global Communication, in case Mawlum. Accessed 13 May 2005.

• Archive of Lao music
• Laos Cultural Profile (Ministry of Information and Culture/Visiting Arts)
• The Soul of Molam (2)—Inside the molam bus project: The Sound of Isaan's political molam
• The Soul of Molam (3)—The dying capital of Molam: Maha Sarakham's molam agencies face their last days
• The Soul of Molam (4)—Meet Mod the Electric Phin Maker
• The Soul of Molam (6)—Turning the music scene upside down, new Isaan singers find their voice

• Mor lam
• Thai styles of music
• Music of Laos

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