| Moorish architecture | |
|---|---|
   Top:Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain (8th century); Centre:Bab Oudaya inRabat,Morocco (late 12th century); Bottom:Court of the Lions at theAlhambra inGranada, Spain (14th century) | |
| Years active | 8th century to present day |
Moorish architecture[a] is a style withinIslamic architecture that developed in the westernIslamic world, includingal-Andalus (theIberian Peninsula) and what is now Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia (part of theMaghreb).[9][10] Scholarly references on Islamic architecture often refer to this architectural tradition in terms such asarchitecture of the Islamic West orarchitecture of the Western Islamic lands.[11]
This architectural tradition integrated influences from pre-IslamicRoman,Byzantine, andVisigothic architectures,[3][12][10] from ongoing artistic currents in the IslamicMiddle East,[13][12][3] and from North AfricanBerber traditions.[9][14][3] Major centers of artistic development included the main capitals of the empires and Muslim states in the region's history, such asCórdoba,Kairouan,Fes,Marrakesh,Seville,Granada andTlemcen. While Kairouan and Córdoba were some of the most important centers during the 8th to 10th centuries,[9][15] a wider regional style was later synthesized and shared across the Maghreb and al-Andalus thanks to the empires of theAlmoravids and theAlmohads, which unified both regions for much of the 11th to 13th centuries.[9][15][14][16] Within this wider region, a certain difference remained between architectural styles in the more easterly region ofIfriqiya (roughly present-day Tunisia) and a more specific style in the western Maghreb (present-day Morocco and western Algeria) and al-Andalus, sometimes referred to asHispano-Moresque orHispano-Maghrebi.[9]: viii–ix [13]: 121, 155
This architectural style came to encompass distinctive features such as thehorseshoe arch,riad gardens (courtyard gardens with a symmetrical four-part division), square (cuboid)minarets, and elaborategeometric andarabesque motifs in wood,stucco, andtilework (notablyzellij).[9][3][17][13] Over time, it made increasing use of surface decoration while also retaining a tradition of focusing attention on the interior of buildings rather than their exterior. Unlike Islamic architecture further east, western Islamic architecture did not make prominent use of largevaults anddomes.[10]: 11
Even as Muslim ruleended on the Iberian Peninsula, the traditions of Moorish architecture continued in North Africa as well as in theMudéjar style in Spain, which adapted Moorish techniques and designs for Christian patrons.[10][18] In Algeria and Tunisia local styles were subjected toOttoman influence and other changes from the 16th century onward, while in Morocco the earlier Hispano-Maghrebi style was largely perpetuated up to modern times with fewer external influences.[10]: 243–245 In the 19th century and after, the Moorish style was frequentlyimitated in the form ofNeo-Moorish or Moorish Revival architecture in Europe and America,[19] includingNeo-Mudéjar in Spain.[20] Some scholarly references associate the term "Moorish" or "Moorish style" more narrowly with this 19th-century trend inWestern architecture.[21][1]
In the 7th century the region of North Africa became steadily integrated into the emergingMuslim world during theEarly Arab-Muslim Conquests. The territory ofIfriqiya (roughly present-dayTunisia), and its newly founded capital city ofKairouan (also transliterated as "Qayrawan") became an early center ofIslamic culture for the region.[22] According to tradition, theGreat Mosque of Kairouan was founded here byUqba ibn Nafi in 670, although the current structure dates from later.[9][23][10]: 28
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In 711, most of theIberian Peninsula, part of theVisigothic Kingdom at the time, wasconquered by a Muslim (largelyBerber) army led byTariq ibn Ziyad and became known asAl-Andalus. The city ofCordoba became its capital. In 756,Abd ar-Rahman I, a surviving member of theUmayyad dynasty, established the independentEmirate of Cordoba here. In 785, he founded theGreat Mosque of Cordoba, one of the most important architectural monuments of the western Islamic world. The mosque is notable for its vasthypostyle hall composed of rows of columns connected by double tiers of arches (includinghorseshoe arches on the lower tier) composed of alternating red brick and light-colored stone. The mosque was subsequently expanded byAbd ar-Rahman II in 836, who preserved the original design while extending its dimensions. The mosque was again embellished with new features by his successorsMuhammad,Al-Mundhir, andAbdallah. One of the western gates of the mosque, known asBab al-Wuzara' (today known asPuerta de San Esteban), dates from this period and is often noted as an important prototype of later Moorish architectural forms and motifs: the horseshoe arch hasvoussoirs that alternate in colour and decoration and the arch is set inside a decorative rectangular frame (alfiz).[9][3][24][10] The influence of ancientClassical architecture is strongly felt in the Islamic architecture during this early Emirate period of the peninsula.[3]: 48 The most obvious example of this was the reuse of columns and capitals from earlier periods in the initial construction of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. When new, richly carved capitals were produced for the mosque's 9th-century expansion, they emulated the form of classicalCorinthian capitals.[13]: 88
In Seville, theMosque of Ibn Adabbas was founded in 829 and was considered the second-oldest Muslim building in Spain (after the Great Mosque of Cordoba) until it was demolished in 1671.[b] This mosque had a hypostyle form consisting of eleven aisles divided by rows of brick arches supported on marble columns.[26][25]: 144–145 Of the briefMuslim presence in southern France during the 8th century, only a few funerarystelae have been found.[27] In 1952 French archaeologist Jean Lacam excavated theCour de la Madeleine ('Courtyard of Madeline') in theSaint-Rustique Church [fr] inNarbonne, where he discovered remains which he interpreted as the remains of a mosque from the 8th-century Muslim occupation of Narbonne.[c][27][28]
In Ifriqiya, theRibat of Sousse and theRibat of Monastir are two military structures dated to the late 8th century, making them the oldest surviving Islamic-era monuments in Tunisia – although subjected to later modifications.[10]: 25 The Ribat of Sousse contains a smallvaulted room with amihrab (niche symbolizing thedirection of prayer) which is the oldest preserved mosque or prayer hall in North Africa. Another small room in the fortress, located above the front gate, is covered by adome supported onsquinches, which is the oldest example of this construction technique in Islamic North Africa.[10]: 25 The tall cylindrical tower inside the ribat, most likely intended as alighthouse, has a marble plaque over its entrance inscribed with the name of Ziyadat Allah I and the date 821, which in turn is the oldest Islamic-era monumental inscription to survive in Tunisia.[d][10]: 25–26
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In the 9th century, Ifriqiya was controlled by theAghlabids, an Arab dynasty who ruled nominally on behalf of theAbbasid Caliphs inBaghdad but werede facto autonomous. They were major builders and erected many of Tunisia's oldest Islamic religious buildings and practical infrastructure works like theAghlabid Reservoirs of Kairouan. Much of their architecture, even their mosques, had a heavy and almost fortress-like appearance, but they nonetheless left an influential artistic legacy.[9]: 9–61 [10]: 21–41 [23]
One of the most important Aghlabid monuments is the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which was completely rebuilt in 836 by the emirZiyadat Allah I (r. 817–838), although various additions and repairs were effected later which complicate the chronology of its construction.[10]: 28–32 Its design was a major reference point in the architectural history of mosques in the Maghreb.[29]: 273 The mosque features an enormous rectangular courtyard, a large hypostyle prayer hall, and a thick three-storyminaret (tower from which thecall to prayer is issued). The prayer hall's layout reflects an early use of the so-called "T-plan", in which the central nave of the hypostyle hall (the one leading to the mihrab) and the transverse aisle running along theqibla wall are wider than the other aisles and intersect in front of the mihrab.[13] The mihrab of the prayer hall is among the oldest examples of its kind, richly decorated with marble panels carved in high-relief vegetal motifs and with ceramictiles withoverglaze andluster.[10]: 30 [30] Next to the mihrab is the oldest survivingminbar (pulpit) in the world, made of richly carvedteakwood panels. Both the carved panels of the minbar and the ceramic tiles of the mihrab are believed to be imports from AbbasidIraq.[10]: 30–32 An elegant dome in front of the mihrab with an elaborately decorated drum is one of architectural highlights of this period. Its light construction contrasts with the bulky structure of the surrounding mosque and the dome'sdrum is elaborately decorated with a frieze ofblind arches, squinches carved in the shape of shells, and various motifs carved in low-relief.[10]: 30–32 The mosque's minaret is the oldest surviving one in North Africa and the western Islamic world.[31][32] Its form was modeled on olderRoman lighthouses in North Africa, quite possibly the lighthouse atSalakta (Sullecthum) in particular.[10]: 32 [33][34]: 138
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TheGreat Mosque of al-Zaytuna inTunis, which was founded earlier around 698, owes its overall current form to a reconstruction during the reign of the Aghlabid emirAbu Ibrahim Ahmad (r. 856–863). Its layout is very similar to the Great Mosque of Kairouan.[23][10]: 38–41 Two other congregational mosques in Tunisia, theGreat Mosque of Sfax (circa 849) and theGreat Mosque of Sousse (851), were also built by the Aghlabids but have different forms.[10]: 36–37 The smallMosque of Ibn Khayrun in Kairouan (also known as the "Mosque of the Three Doors"), dated to 866 and commissioned by a private patron, possesses what is considered by some to be the oldest decorated external façade inIslamic architecture, featuring carvedKufic inscriptions andvegetal motifs.[23] Apart from its limestone façade, most of the mosque was rebuilt at a later period.[10]: 33–34 Another small local mosque from this period is the Mosque of Bu Fatata in Sousse, dated to the reign ofAbu Iqal al-Aghlab ibn Ibrahim (r. 838–841), which has a hypostyle prayer hall fronted by an externalportico of three arches. Both the Ibn Khayrun and Bu Fatata mosques are early examples of the "nine-bay" mosque, meaning that the interior has a square plan subdivided into nine smaller square spaces, usually vaulted, arranged in three rows of three. This type of layout is found later in al-Andalus and as far as Central Asia, suggesting that it may be a design that was disseminated widely by Muslim pilgrims returning from Mecca.[10]: 33–34
Further west, theRustamid dynasty, who were Ibadi Kharijites and did not recognize the Abbasid Caliphs, held sway over much of the central Maghreb. Their capital, Tahart (near present-dayTiaret), was founded in the second half of the 8th century byAbd al-Rahman ibn Rustam and was occupied seasonally by its semi-nomadic inhabitants. It was destroyed by the Fatimids in 909 but its remains were excavated in the 20th century.[10]: 41 The city was surrounded by a fortified wall interspersed with square towers. It contained a hypostyle mosque, a fortified citadel on higher ground, and a palace structure with a large courtyard similar to the design of traditional houses.[10]: 41 [12]: 13–14
TheIslamization of present-day Morocco, the westernmost territory of the Muslim world (known as the Maghreb al-Aqsa), became more definitive with the advent of theIdrisid dynasty at the end of the 8th century.[22] The Idrisids founded the city ofFes, which became their capital and the major political and cultural center of early Islamic Morocco.[35][36] In this early period Morocco also absorbed waves of immigrants from Tunisia and al-Andalus who brought in cultural and artistic influences from their home countries.[22][37] The well-knownQarawiyyin andAndalusiyyin mosques in Fes, founded in the 9th century during, were built in hypostyle form but the structures themselves were rebuilt during later expansions.[9]: 197–198, 211–212 [38]: 9–11 [39]: 9 [10]: 42 The layout of two other mosques from this era, the Mosque of Agadir and the Mosque ofAghmat, are known thanks to modern archeological investigations. The Mosque of Agadir was founded in 790 byIdris I on the site of the former Roman town of Pomeria (present-dayTlemcen in Algeria), while the Mosque of Aghmat, a town about 30 km southeast of present-day Marrakesh, was founded in 859 by Wattas Ibn Kardus. Both of them were also hypostyle mosques with prayer halls supported by rows of pillars.[10]: 42–43
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In the 10th centuryAbd ar-Rahman III declared a newCaliphate in al-Andalus and inaugurated the height of Andalusi power in the region. He marked this political evolution with the creation of a vast and lavish palace-city calledMadinat al-Zahra, located just outside Cordoba on the lower slopes of theSierra Morena. Its construction started in 936 and continued for decades during his reign and that of his son.[3]: 61–68 The site was later destroyed and pillaged after the end of the Caliphate, but its remains have been excavated since 1911.[40] The site covers a vast area divided into three terraced levels: the highest level contained the caliph's palaces, the level below this contained official buildings and dwellings of high officials, and the lowest and largest level was inhabited by common workers, craftsmen, and soldiers.[3]: 63 The most lavish building discovered so far, known today as theSalón Rico ("Rich Hall" in Spanish), is the reception hall of Abd ar-Rahman III, which is fronted by sunken gardens and reflective pools on a terrace overlooking the landscape below. Its main hall is a rectangular space divided into three naves by two rows of horseshoe arches and nearly every wall surface is covered in exceptional stone-carved decoration withgeometric andtree of life motifs.[40][24]: 33–34 While garden estates were built by the Umayyad rulers and elites of Cordoba before this, the gardens of Madinat al-Zahra are the oldest archeologically documented example of geometrically divided gardens (related to thechahar bagh type) in the western Islamic world, among the oldest examples in the Islamic world generally, and the oldest known example to combine this type of garden with a system of terraces.[41]: 45–47 [12]: 69–70
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Andalusi decoration and craftsmanship of this period became more standardized. While Classical inspirations are still present, they are interpreted more freely and are mixed with influences from the Middle East, including ancientSasanian or more recentAbbasid motifs. This is seen for example in the stylized vegetal motifs intricately carved onto limestone panels on the walls at Madinat al-Zahra.[13]: 121–124 [3]: 103–104 It is also at Madinat al-Zahra that the "caliphal" style of horseshoe arch was formalized: the curve of the arch forms about three quarters of a circle, the voussoirs are aligned with theimposts rather than the center of the arch, the curve of the extrados is "stilted" in relation to that of the intrados, and the arch is set within a decorativealfiz.[24]: 33 [10]: 57 Back in Cordoba itself, Abd ar-Rahman III also expanded the courtyard (sahn) of the Great Mosque and built its first true minaret. The minaret, with a cuboid shape about 47 metres (154 ft) tall, became the model followed for later minarets in the region.[10]: 61–63 Abd ar-Rahman III's cultured son and successor,al-Hakam II, further expanded the mosque's prayer hall, starting in 962. He endowed it with some of its most significant architectural flourishes and innovations, which included amaqsura enclosed by intersectingmultifoil arches, four ornate ribbed domes, and a richly ornamented mihrab withByzantine-influenced goldmosaics.[9]: 139–151 [3]: 70–86
A much smaller but notable work from the late caliphate period is theBab al-Mardum Mosque (now known as the Church of San Cristo de la Luz) inToledo, which has a nine-bay layout covered by a variety of ribbed domes and an exterior façade with an Arabic inscription carved in brick. Other monuments from the Caliphate period in al-Andalus include some of Toledo's old city gates (e.g.Puerta de Bisagra), theformer mosque (and later monastery) ofAlmonaster la Real, theCastle of Tarifa, theBurgalimar Castle, theCaliphal Baths of Cordoba, and, possibly, theBaths of Jaen.[3]: 88–103
In the 10th century much of northern Morocco also came directly within the sphere of influence of the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba, with competition from theFatimid Caliphate further east.[22] Early contributions toMoroccan architecture from this period include expansions to the Qarawiyyin and Andalusiyyin mosques in Fes and the addition of their square-shafted minarets, carried out under the sponsorship of Abd ar-Rahman III and following the example of the minaret he built for the Great Mosque of Cordoba.[9]: 199, 212
In Ifriqiya, the Fatimids also built extensively, most notably with the creation of a new fortified capital on the coast,Mahdia. Construction began in 916 and the new city was officially inaugurated on 20 February 921, although some construction continued.[10]: 47 In addition to its heavy fortified walls, the city included the Fatimid palaces, an artificial harbor, and a congregational mosque (theGreat Mosque of Mahdia). Much of this has not survived to the present day. Fragments of mosaic pavements from the palaces have been discovered from modern excavations.[10]: 48 The mosque is one of the most well-preserved Fatimid monuments in theMaghreb, although it too has been extensively damaged over time and was in large part reconstructed byarcheologists in the 1960s.[10]: 49 It consists of a hypostyle prayer hall with a roughly square courtyard. The mosque's original main entrance, a monumental portal projecting from the wall, was relatively unusual at the time and may have been inspired by ancient Romantriumphal arches. Another unusual feature was the absence of a minaret, which may have reflected an early Fatimid rejection of such structures as unnecessary innovations.[10]: 49–51
In 946 the Fatimids began construction of a new capital,al-Mansuriyya, near Kairouan. Unlike Mahdia, which was built with more strategic and defensive considerations in mind, this capital was built as a display of power and wealth. The city had a round layout with the caliph's palace at the center, possibly modeled on theRound City of Baghad. While only sparse remains of the city have been uncovered, it appears to have differed from earlier Fatimid palaces in its extensive use of water. One excavated structure had a vast rectangular courtyard mostly occupied by a large pool. This use of water was reminiscent of earlier Aghlabid palaces at nearbyRaqqada and of contemporary palaces at Madinat al-Zahra, but not of older Umayyad and Abbasid palaces further east, suggesting that displays of waterworks were evolving as symbols of power in the Maghreb and al-Andalus.[10]: 58–61
The collapse of the Cordoban caliphate in the early 11th century gave rise to the firstTaifas period, during which al-Andalus was politically fragmented into a number of smaller kingdoms. The disintegration of central authority resulted in the ruin and pillage of Madinat al-Zahra.[42] Despite this political decline, the culture of the Taifa emirates was vibrant and productive, with the architectural forms of the Caliphate period continuing to evolve. A number of important palaces or fortresses, in various cities, were begun or expanded by local dynasties. TheAlcazaba of Malaga, begun in the early 11th century and subsequently modified, is one of the most important examples. The earliest part of the palace features horseshoe arches with carved vegetal decoration that appear to imitate, with less sophistication, the style of Madinat al-Zahra. Another part contains intersecting multifoil arches that resemble those of al-Hakam II'smaqsura in the Cordoba mosque, though serving a purely decorative and non-structural purpose here.[12]: 154 [24]: 53–55 TheAlcazar of Seville and theAlcazaba of the Alhambra were also the site of earlier fortresses or palaces by theAbbadids (inSeville) and theZirids (in Granada), respectively.[3]: 127 TheAlcazaba of Almería, along with a preserved section ofAlmería's defensive walls, dates from the 11th century, though little remains of the palaces built inside the Alcazaba.[3]: 124 TheBañuelo of Granada, another historicIslamic bathhouse, is also traditionally dated to the 11th century, though recent studies suggest it may date from slightly later, the 12th century.[43][44]
TheAljaferia Palace inZaragoza, though much restored in modern times, is one of the most significant and best-preserved examples of this period, built during the second half of the 11th century by theBanu Hud. Inside its enclosure of fortified walls, one courtyard has been preserved from this period, occupied by pools and sunken gardens and wide rectangular halls fronted by porticos at either end. The arches of this courtyard have elaborate intersecting and mixed-linear designs and intricately carvedstucco decoration. The carved stucco of the southern portico, enveloping a simple brick core, is especially dizzying and complex, drawing on the forms of plain and multifoil arches but manipulating them into motifs outside their normal structural logic. Next to the northern hall of the courtyard, which was probablyal-Muqtadir's audience hall, is an unusual small octagonal room with a mihrab, most likely a private oratory for the ruler. The designs and decoration of the palace appear to be a further elaboration of 10th-century Cordoban architecture, in particular al-Hakam II's extension in the Mosque of Cordoba, and of theTaifa-period aesthetic that followed it.[10]: 95–98 [24]: 56–59 Remains of another palace atBalaguer, further east in Catalonia today, are contemporary with the Aljaferia. Fragments of stucco decoration found here show that it was built in a very similar style. However, they also include rare surviving examples of figural sculpture in western Islamic architectural decoration, such as the carved image of a tree occupied by birds andharpies.[10]: 98
In North Africa, new Berber dynasties such as theZirids ruled on behalf of the Fatimids, who had moved their base of power to Cairo in the late 10th century. The Zirid palace at'Ashir (near the present town ofKef Lakhdar in Algeria) was built in 934 byZiri ibn Manad while in the service of the Fatimid caliphal-Qa'im. It is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated.[12]: 53 It was built in stone and has a carefully designed symmetrical plan which included a large central courtyard and two smaller courtyards in each of the side wings of the palace. Some scholars believe this design imitated the now-lost Fatimid palaces of Mahdia.[10]: 67 As independent rulers, however, the Zirids of Ifriqiya built relatively few grand structures. They reportedly built a new palace atal-Mansuriyya, a former Fatimid capital near Kairouan, but it has not been found by archeologists.[12]: 123 In Kairouan itself the Great Mosque was restored byAl-Mu'izz ibn Badis. The woodenmaqsura within the mosque today is believed to date from this time.[10]: 87 It is the oldestmaqsura in the Islamic world to be preservedin situ and was commissioned by al-Mu῾izz ibn Badis in the first half of the 11th century (though later restored). It is notable for its woodwork, which includes an elaborately carvedKufic inscription dedicated to al-Mu'izz.[45][46] TheQubbat al-Bahw, an elegant dome at the entrance of the prayer hall of the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis, dates from 991 and can be attributed toAl-Mansur ibn Buluggin.[10]: 86–87
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TheHammadids, an offshoot of the Zirids, ruled in the central Maghreb (present-day Algeria) during the 11th and 12th centuries. They built an entirely new fortified capital known asQal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been excavated by modern archeologists and the site is one of the best-preserved medieval Islamic capitals in the world. It contains several palaces, various amenities, and agrand mosque, in an arrangement that bears similarities to other palace-cities such as Madinat al-Zahra.[12]: 125–126 [10]: 88–93 The largest palace,Qasr al-Bahr ("Palace of the Sea"), was built around an enormous rectangular water basin. The architecture of the site has been compared to Fatimid architecture, but bears specific resemblances to contemporary architecture in the western Maghreb, Al-Andalus, and Arab-Norman Sicily. For example, while the Fatimids usually built no minarets, the grand mosque of Qal'at Bani Hammad has a large square-based minaret with interlacing and polylobed arch decoration, which are features of architecture in al-Andalus.[10]: 88–93 Various remnants of tile decoration have been discovered at the site, including the earliest known use ofglazed tile decoration in western Islamic architecture.[10]: 91–93 Archeologists also discovered fragments of plaster which have been identified by some as the earliest appearance ofmuqarnas ("stalactite" or "honeycomb" sculpting) in the western Islamic world,[47][12]: 133 but their identification as truemuqarnas has been questioned or rejected by some other scholars.[48][10]: 93
The late 11th century saw the significantadvance of Christian kingdoms into Muslim al-Andalus, particularly with the fall of Toledo toAlfonso VI ofCastile in 1085, and the rise of major Berber empires originating in northwestern Africa. The latter included first theAlmoravids (11th–12th centuries) and then theAlmohads (12th–13th centuries), both of whom created empires that stretched across large parts of western and northern Africa and took over the remaining Muslim territories of al-Andalus in Europe. Both empires had their capital atMarrakesh, which was founded by the Almoravids in the second half of the 11th century.[49] This period is one of the most formative stages of architecture in al-Andalus and the Maghreb, establishing many of the forms and motifs that were refined in subsequent centuries.[9][14][49][50]
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The Almoravids made use of Andalusi craftsmen throughout their realms, thus helping to spread the highly ornate architectural style of al-Andalus to North Africa.[10]: 115–119 [14]: 26–30 Almoravid architecture assimilated the motifs and innovations of Andalusi architecture, such as the complexinterlacing arches of the Great Mosque in Cordoba and of the Aljaferia palace in Zaragoza, but it also introduced new ornamental techniques from the east, such asmuqarnas, and added its own innovations, such as thelambrequin arch and the use of pillars instead of columns in mosques.[14]: 26–30 [51] Stucco-carved decoration began to appear more and more as part of these compositions and would become even more elaborate in subsequent periods.[3]: 155 Almoravid patronage thus marks a period of transition for architecture in the region, setting the stage for future developments.[14]: 30
Some of the oldest and most significant surviving examples of Almoravid religious architecture, although with later modifications, are theGreat Mosque of Algiers (1096–1097), theGreat Mosque of Tlemcen (1136), and theGreat Mosque of Nedroma (1145), all located in Algeria today.[9][10] The highly ornate, semi-transparent plaster dome in front of the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, dating from the reign ofAli ibn Yusuf (r. 1106–1143), is one of the highlights of this period. The design of the dome traces its origins to the earlier ribbed domes of Al-Andalus and, in turn, it probably influenced the design of similar ornamental domes in later mosques in Fez andTaza.[52][10]: 116
In Morocco, the only notable remnants of Almoravid religious architecture are theQubba Ba'adiyyin, a small but highly ornate ablutions pavilion in Marrakesh, and the Almoravid expansion of the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fez. These two monuments also contain the earliest clear examples ofmuqarnas decoration in the region, with the first completemuqarnasvault appearing in the central nave of the Qarawiyyin Mosque.[10]: 114–120 [53] The Almoravid palace of Ali Ibn Yusuf in Marrakesh, excavated in the 20th century, contains the earliest known example of ariad garden (an interior garden symmetrically divided into four parts) in Morocco.[54]: 71 [9]: 404
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In present-day Spain, the oldest survivingmuqarnas fragments were found in a palace built byMuhammad Ibn Mardanish, the independent ruler ofMurcia (1147–1172). The remains of the palace, known asal-Qasr al-Seghir (orAlcázar Seguir in Spanish) are part of the present-day Monastery of Santa Clara in Murcia. The muqarnas fragments are painted with images of musicians and other figures.[10]: 98–100 Ibn Mardanish also constructed what is now known as the Castillejo de Monteagudo, a hilltop castle and fortified palace outside the city that is one of the best-preserved examples of Almoravid-era architecture in the Iberian Peninsula. It has a rectangular plan and contained a large riad garden courtyard with symmetrical reception halls facing each other across the long axis of the garden.[10]: 98–100 [16][55]
Almohad architecture showed more restraint than Almoravid architecture in its use of ornamental richness, giving greater attention to wider forms, contours, and overall proportions. Earlier motifs were refined and were given a grander scale. While surface ornament remained important, architects strove for a balance between decorated surfaces and empty spaces, allowing the interaction of light and shadows across carved surfaces to play a role.[14]: 86–88 [13]
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The AlmohadKutubiyya andTinmal mosques are often considered the prototypes of medieval mosque architecture in the region.[14][9] The so-called "T-plan", combined with a hierarchical use of decoration that emphasizes the wider central and transverseqibla aisles of the mosque, became an established feature of this architecture.[10]: 128, 147 The monumental minarets of the Kutubiyya Mosque, theGiralda of the Great Mosque of Seville (now part of thecity's cathedral), and theHassan Tower of Rabat, as well as the ornamental gateways ofBab Agnaou in Marrakesh andBab Oudaia andBab er-Rouah in Rabat, were all models that established the overall decorative schemes that became recurrent in these architectural elements from then on. The minaret of theKasbah Mosque of Marrakesh, with its façades covered bysebka motifs and glazed tile, was particularly influential and set a style that was repeated, with minor elaborations, in the following period under theMarinids and other dynasties.[56][14][9][10]: 147
The Almohad caliphs constructed their own palace complexes in several cities. They founded theKasbah of Marrakesh in the late 12th century as their main residence, imitating earlier examples of self-contained palace-cities such as Madinat al-Zahra in the 10th century.[56] The Almohads also madeTunis the regional capital of their territories in Ifriqiya (present-day Tunisia), establishing the city's ownkasbah (citadel).[57][23] The caliphs also constructed multiple country estates and gardens right outside some of these cities, continuing a tradition that existed under the Almoravids.[12]: 196–212 These estates were typically centered around a large artificial water reservoir that sustainedorchards of fruit trees and other plants, while small palaces or pleasure pavilions were built along the water's edge. In Marrakesh, the present-dayAgdal andMenara gardens both developed from such Almohad creations. In Seville, the remains of the Almohadal-Buḥayra garden, founded in 1171, were excavated in the 1970s.[12]: 196–212 Sunken gardens were also part of Almohad palace courtyards. In some cases the gardens were divided symmetrically into four parts, much like a riad garden. Examples of these have been found in some courtyards of the Alcázar of Seville, where the former Almohad palaces once stood.[12]: 199–210 [58]: 70–71
Sicily was progressively brought under Muslim control in the 9th when the Aghlabids conquered it from the Byzantines. The island was subsequently settled by Arabs and Berbers from North Africa. In the following century the island passed into the control of the Fatimids, who left the island under the governorship of theKalbids. By the mid-11th century the island was fragmented into smaller Muslim states and by the end of that century theNormans had conquered it under the leadership ofRobert Guiscard andRoger de Hauteville (Roger I).[59][60]
Virtually no examples of architecture from the period of theEmirate of Sicily have survived today.[60] However, the following period of Norman domination, especially underRoger II in the 12th century, was notable for its uniqueblending of Norman, Byzantine and Arab-Islamic cultures.[61][59] Multiple examples of this "Arab-Norman" architecture – which was also heavily influenced byByzantine architecture – have survived today and are even classified together as aUNESCO World Heritage Site (since 2015).[62] While the Arab-Islamic elements of this architecture are closely linked toFatimid architecture, they also come from Moorish architecture and are stylistically similar to the preceding Almoravid period.[60]
ThePalazzo dei Normanni (Palace of the Normans) inPalermo contains theCappella Palatina, one of the most important masterpieces of this style, built under Roger II in the 1130s and 1140s.[63][64] It combines harmoniously a variety of styles: theNorman architecture and door decor, the Arabic arches and scripts adorning the roof, the Byzantine dome and mosaics. The central nave of the chapel is covered by a large rectangular vault ceiling made of painted wood and carved inmuqarnas: the largest rectangularmuqarnas vault of its kind.[60]
The eventual collapse of the Almohad Empire in the 13th century was precipitated by its defeat at theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) in al-Andalus and by the advance of the Berber Marinid dynasty in the western Maghreb, theZayyanids in the central Maghreb, and theHafsids in Ifriqiya.[22] What remained of the Muslim-controlled territories in al-Andalus was consolidated by the ArabNasrid dynasty into theEmirate of Granada, which lasted another 250 years until itsfinal conquest by theCatholic Monarchs in 1492, at the end of theReconquista. Both the Nasrids in al-Andalus to the north and the Marinids in Morocco to the south were important in further refining the artistic legacy established by their predecessors.[9][10] WhenGranada was conquered in 1492 byCatholic Spain and the last Muslim realm of al-Andalus came to an end, many of the remainingSpanish Muslims (andJews) fled to Morocco and other parts of North Africa, further increasing the Andalusian influence in these regions in subsequent generations.[65]
The architectural styles of the Marinids, Zayyanids, and Nasrids were very similar to each other. Craftsmen probably travelled between royal courts and from region to region, resulting in mutual influences between the arts of the three kingdoms.[10]: 177 Compared with the relatively restrained decoration of Almohad architecture, the monuments of all three dynasties during this period are marked by increasingly extensive and intricate decoration on every surface, particularly in wood, stucco, andzellij (mosaictilework in complexgeometric patterns).[10]: 149 Some differences are still found between the styles of each dynasty, such as the wider use of marble columns in Nasrid palaces and the increasing use of wooden elements in Marinid architecture.[13]: 159 Nasrid architecture also exhibits details influenced by Granada's closer interactions with Christian kingdoms likeCastile.[66][3]: 212
The Marinids, who choseFes as their capital, were also the first to buildmadrasas in this region, a type of institution which originated inIran and had spread west.[9] The madrasas of Fes, such as theBou Inania,al-Attarine, andas-Sahrij madrasas, as well as theMarinid madrasa ofSalé and the otherBou Inania inMeknes, are considered among the greatest architectural works of this period.[67][65][9] The Marinids also imitated previous dynasties by founding their own fortified palace-city to the west of Fes, known afterwards asFes el-Jdid ("New Fez"), which remained a frequent center of power in Morocco even during later dynasties such as the'Alawis.[36][68] Unlike theAlhambra of Granada, the grand palaces of Fes el-Jdid have not survived, though they may have been comparable in splendor.[69] TheGreat Mosque of Fes el-Jdid, on the other hand, is one of the major Marinid mosques that is still well-preserved today, while numerous other mosques were built throughout Fes and in other cities during this period, including theLalla az-Zhar Mosque in Fes, theBen Salah Mosque in Marrakesh, theZawiya an-Nussak inSalé, theGreat Mosque of Oujda, and others.[9]
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The most famous architectural legacy of the Nasrids in Granada is the Alhambra, a hilltop palace district protected by heavy fortifications and containing some of the most famous and best-preserved palaces of western Islamic architecture. Initially a fortress built by the Zirids in the 11th century (corresponding to the currentAlcazaba), it was expanded into a self-contained and well-fortified palace district complete with habitations for servants and workers. The oldest remaining palace there today, built underMuhammad III (ruled 1302–1309), is thePalacio del Partal which, although only partly preserved, demonstrates the typical layout which would be repeated in other palaces nearby: a courtyard centered on a large reflective pool with porticos at either end and amirador (lookout) tower at one end which looked down on the city from the edge of the palace walls.[70][24][3] The most famous palaces, theComares Palace and thePalace of the Lions, were added afterwards. The Comares Palace, which includes a lavishhammam (bathhouse) and the Hall of the Ambasadors (a throne room), was begun underIsma'il I (ruled 1314–1325) but mostly constructed underYusuf I (1333–1354) andMuhammad V (ruled 1354–1359 and 1362–1391).[24][10]: 152 The Palace of the Lions was built under Muhammad V and possibly finished around 1380.[10]: 152 [24]: 142 It features a courtyard with a central marble fountain decorated with twelve lion sculptures. The galleries and chambers around the courtyard are notable for their extremely fine stucco decoration and some exceptionalmuqarnas vault ceilings.[10]: 160–163 Four other nearby palaces in the Alhambra were demolished at various points after the end of theReconquista (1492).[24] The summer palace and gardens known as theGeneralife were also created nearby – at the end of the 13th century[10]: 164 or in the early 14th century[3]: 204 – in a tradition reminiscent of the Almohad-era Agdal Gardens of Marrakesh and theMarinid Royal Gardens of Fes.[68] The Nasrids also built other structures throughout the city – such as theMadrasa and theCorral del Carbón – and left their mark on other structures and fortifications throughout their territory, though not many significant structures have survived intact to the present-day.[3]
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Meanwhile, in the former territories of al-Andalus under the control of the Spanish kingdoms ofLéon,Castile andAragon, Andalusi art and architecture continued to be employed for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons, becoming what is known asMudéjar art (named after theMudéjars or Muslims under Christian rule). This type of architecture, created by Muslim craftsmen or by other craftsmen following the same tradition, continued many of the same forms and motifs with minor variations. Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. theChurch of San Román, 13th century), as well as other cities inAragon such as Zaragoza andTeruel.[9][18] Among the most famous and celebrated examples is the Alcazar of Seville, which was the former palace of the Abbadids and the Almohads in the city but was rebuilt in by Christian rulers, includingPeter the Cruel who added lavish sections in Moorish style starting in 1364 with the help of craftsmen from Granada and Toledo.[10] Other smaller but notable examples in Cordoba include theChapel of San Bartolomé[71] and the Royal Chapel (Capilla Real) in the Great Mosque (which was converted to a cathedral in 1236).[72][9] Some surviving 13th and 14th-century Jewish synagogues were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar Moorish style while under Christian rule, such as theSynagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form in 1250),[73]Synagogue of Cordoba (1315),[74] and theSynagogue of El Tránsito (1355–1357).[75][76]
Further east, in Algeria, the Berber Zayyanid or Abd al-Wadid dynasty controlledtheir own state and built monuments in their main capital atTlemcen.Yaghmorasan (r. 1236–1283), the founder of the dynasty, added minarets to the earlier Mosque of Agadir and the Great Mosque of Tlemcen while his successor,Abu Sa'id 'Uthman (r. 1283–1304), founded theMosque of Sidi Bel Hasan in 1296.[10]: 179–184 The Zayyanids built other religious foundations in the area, but many have not survived to the present day or have preserved little of their original appearance.[10]: 187 In addition to mosques, they built the first madrasas in Tlemcen. TheMadrasa Tashfiniya, founded byAbu Tashfin I (r. 1318–1337), was celebrated for its rich decoration, includingzellij tile decoration with sophisticatedarabesque and geometric motifs whose style was repeated in some subsequent Marinid monuments.[10]: 187 [77]: 526 The Marinids also intermittently occupied Tlemcen in the 14th century and left their mark on the area. During his siege of the city at the beginning of the century, the Marinid leaderAbu Ya'qub built a fortified settlement nearby namedal-Mansurah, which includes the monumentalMansurah Mosque (begun in 1303, only partly preserved today).[9][10]: 184–186 Further east,Abu al-Hasan founded theMosque of Sidi Bu Madyan in the city in 1338–39.[10]: 195
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In Ifriqiya (Tunisia), the Hafsids, a branch of the Almohad ruling class, declared their independence from the Almohads in 1229 and developed their own state which came to control much of the surrounding region. They were also significant builders, particularly under the reigns of successful leaders likeAbu Zakariya (ruled 1229–1249) andAbu Faris (ruled 1394–1434), though not many of their monuments have survived intact to the present-day.[10]: 208 While Kairouan remained an important religious center,Tunis was the capital and progressively replaced it as the main city of the region and the main center of architectural patronage. Unlike the architecture further west,Hafsid architecture was built primarily in stone (rather than brick ormudbrick) and appears to have featured much less decoration.[10]: 208 In reviewing the history of architecture in the region, scholarJonathan Bloom remarks that Hafsid architecture seems to have "largely charted a course independent of the developments elsewhere in the Maghrib [North Africa]".[10]: 213
TheKasbah Mosque of Tunis was one of the first works of this period, built by Abu Zakariya (the first independent Hafsid ruler) at the beginning of his reign. Its floor plan had noticeable differences from previous Almohad-period mosques but the minaret, completed in 1233, bears very strong resemblance the minaret of the earlier AlmohadKasbah Mosque in Marrakesh.[10] Other foundations from the Hafsid period in Tunis include theHaliq Mosque (13th century) and theal-Hawa Mosque (1375). TheBardo Palace (today a national museum) was also begun by the Hafsids in the 15th century,[57] and is mentioned in historical records for the first time during the reign of Abu Faris.[10]: 208 The Hafsids also made significant renovations to the much older Great Mosque of Kairouan – renovating its ceiling, reinforcing its walls, and building or rebuilding two of its entrance gates in 1293 – as well as to the al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis.[10]: 209
The Hafsids also introduced the first madrasas to the region, beginning with theMadrasa al-Shamma῾iyya built in Tunis in 1238[23][10]: 209 (or in 1249 according to some sources[9]: 296 [78]). This was followed by many others (almost all of them in Tunis) such as the Madrasa al-Hawa founded in the 1250s, the Madrasa al-Ma'ridiya (1282), and theMadrasa al-Unqiya (1341).[10] Many of these early madrasas, however, have been poorly preserved or have been considerably modified in the centuries since their foundation.[10][79] The Madrasa al-Muntasiriya, completed in 1437, is among the best preserved madrasas of the Hafsid period.[10]: 211
The Hafsids were eventually supplanted by theOttomans who took over most of the Maghreb in the 16th century, with the exception of Morocco, which remained an independent kingdom.[22] This resulted in an even greater divergence between the architecture of Morocco to the west, which continued to follow essentially the same Andalusi-Maghrebi traditions of art as before, and the architecture of Algeria and Tunisia to the east, which increasingly blended influences fromOttoman architecture into local designs.[10]
In Morocco, after the Marinids came theSaadian dynasty in the 16th century, which marked a political shift from Berber-led empires tosultanates led by Arabsharifian dynasties. Artistically and architecturally, however, there was broad continuity and the Saadians are seen by modern scholars as continuing to refine the existing Moorish-Moroccan style, with some considering theSaadian Tombs in Marrakesh as one of the apogees of this style.[80] Starting with the Saadians, and continuing with the 'Alawis (their successors and the reigning monarchy of Morocco today), Moroccan art and architecture is portrayed by modern scholars as having remained essentially "conservative"; meaning that it continued to reproduce the existing style with high fidelity but did not introduce major new innovations.[9][56][80][17]
The Saadians, especially under the sultansAbdallah al-Ghalib andAhmad al-Mansur, were extensive builders and benefitted from great economic resources at the height of their power in the late 16th century. In addition to the Saadian Tombs, they also built several major mosques in Marrakesh including theMouassine Mosque and theBab Doukkala Mosque, which are notable for being part of larger multi-purpose charitable complexes including several other structures like public fountains, hammams, madrasas, and libraries. This marked a shift from the previous patterns of architectural patronage and may have been influenced by the tradition of building such complexes inMamluk architecture in Egypt and thekülliyes of Ottoman architecture.[56][80] The Saadians also rebuilt the royal palace complex in the Kasbah of Marrakesh for themselves, where Ahmad al-Mansur constructed the famousEl Badi Palace (built between 1578 and 1593) which was known for its superlative decoration and costly building materials including Italianmarble.[56][80]
The 'Alawis, starting withMoulay Rashid in the mid-17th century, succeeded the Saadians as rulers of Morocco and continue to be the reigning monarchy of the country to this day. As a result, many of the mosques and palaces standing in Morocco today have been built or restored by the 'Alawis at some point or another in recent centuries.[65][56][36] Ornate architectural elements from Saadian buildings, most infamously from the lavish El Badi Palace, were also stripped and reused in buildings elsewhere during the reign ofMoulay Isma'il (1672–1727).[80] Moulay Isma'il is also notable for having built avast imperial capital inMeknes, where the remains of his monumental structures can still be seen today. In 1765 SultanMohammed ben Abdallah (one of Moulay Isma'il's sons) started the construction of a new port city calledEssaouira (formerly Mogador), located along theAtlantic coast as close as possible to his capital at Marrakesh, to which he tried to move and restrict European trade.[22]: 241 [10]: 264 He hired European architects to design the city, resulting in a relatively unique historic city built by Moroccans but with Western European architecture, particularly in the style of its fortifications. Similar maritime fortifications orbastions, usually called asqala, were built at the same time in other port cities like Anfa (present-dayCasablanca), Rabat,Larache, andTangier.[9]: 409 Late sultans were also significant builders. Up until the late 19th century and early 20th century, both the sultans and their ministers continued to build beautiful palaces, many of which are now used as museums or tourist attractions, such as theBahia Palace in Marrakesh, theDar Jamaï in Meknes, and theDar Batha in Fes.[17][81]
Over the course of the 16th century the central and eastern Maghreb – Algeria, Tunisia, andLibya – came under Ottoman control. Major port cities such as Algiers, Tunis, andTripoli also became centers of pirate activity, which brought in wealth to local elites but also attracted intrusions by European powers, who occupied and fortified some coastal positions. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Ottoman control became largely nominal: theRegency of Algiers (Algeria) wasde facto ruled by the localdeys until theFrench conquest of 1830, Tunisia was ruled by theMuradid dynasty (after 1602) and theHusaynid dynasty (after 1705), and Libya was ruled by theQaramanli dynasty until the return of direct Ottoman control in 1835.[10]: 215–236 [22]: 144–205 Whereas architecture in Morocco remained largely traditional during the same period, architecture in Algeria and Tunisia was blended withOttoman architecture, especially in the coastal cities where Ottoman influence was strongest. Some European influences were also introduced, particularly through the importation of materials from Italy such as marble.[10]: 215
In Tunis, theMosque complex of Yusuf Dey, built or begun around 1614–15 byYusuf Dey (r. 1610–1637), is one of the earliest and most important examples that imported Ottoman elements into local architecture. Its congregational mosque is accompanied by a madrasa, a primary school, fountains, latrines, and even a café, many of which provided revenues for the upkeep of the complex. This arrangement is similar to Ottomankülliye complexes. It was also the first example of a "funerary mosque" in Tunis, as the complex includes the founder's mausoleum, dated to 1639. While the hypostyle form of the mosque and the pyramidal roof of the mausoleum reflect traditional architecture in the region, the minaret's octagonal shaft reflects the influence of the "pencil"-shaped Ottoman minarets. In this period, octagonal minarets often distinguished mosques following theHanafimaddhab (which was associated with the Ottomans), while mosques which continued to follow theMalikimaddhab (predominant in the Maghreb) continued to employ traditional square-shaft minarets.[10]: 219–221
TheMosque of Hammuda Pasha, built byHammuda Pasha (r. 1631–1664) between 1631 and 1654, reprises many of these same elements as the Yusuf Dey Mosque. Both mosques make use of marble columns and capitals that were imported from Italy and possibly even carved by Italian craftsmen in Tunis.[10]: 221–224 Hammuda Pasha was also responsible for starting in 1629 a major restoration and expansion of theZawiya of Abu al-Balawi or "Mosque of the Barber" in Kairouan. While the Zawiya has been further modified since, one of its characteristic 17th-century features is the decoration of underglaze-paintedQallalin tiles on many of its walls. These tiles, generally produced in the Qallalin district of Tunis, are painted with motifs of vases, plants, and arches and use predominant blue, green, and ochre-like yellow colours which distinguish them from contemporaryOttoman tiles.[10]: 223–224 The artistic height of these tiles was in the 17th and 18th centuries.[23]
It wasn't until the end of the 17th century that the first and only Ottoman-style domed mosque in Tunisia was built: theSidi Mahrez Mosque, begun byMuhammad Bey and completed by his successor, Ramadan ibn Murad, between 1696 and 1699. The mosque's prayer hall is covered by a dome system typical ofClassical Ottoman architecture and first employed bySinan for theŞehzade Mosque (c. 1548) inIstanbul: a large central dome flanked by foursemi-domes, with four smaller domes at the corners andpendentives in the transitional zones between the semi-domes. The interior is decorated with marble paneling and OttomanIznik tiles.[10]: 226–227
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During this period Algiers developed into a major town and witnessed regular architectural patronage, and as such most of the major monuments from this period are concentrated there. By contrast, the city of Tlemcen, the former major capital of the region, went into relative decline and saw far less architectural activity.[10]: 234–236 Mosque architecture in Algiers during this period demonstrates the convergence of multiple influences as well as peculiarities that may be attributed to the innovations of local architects.[10]: 238–240 Domes of Ottoman influence were introduced into the design of mosques, but minarets generally continued to be built with square shafts instead of round or octagonal ones, thus retaining local tradition, unlike contemporary architecture in Ottoman Tunisia and other Ottoman provinces, where the "pencil"-shaped minaret was a symbol of Ottoman sovereignty.[10]: 238 [82][83]
The oldest surviving mosque from the Ottoman period in Algeria is theAli Bitchin (or 'Ali Bitshin) Mosque in Algiers, commissioned by anadmiral of the same name, a convert of Italian origin, in 1622.[10]: 238 The mosque is built on top of a raised platform and was once associated with various annexes including a hospice, a hammam, and a mill. A minaret and public fountain stand on its northeast corner. The interior prayer hall is centered around a square space covered by a large octagonal dome supported on four large pillars and pendentives. This space is surrounded on all four sides with galleries or aisles covered by rows of smaller domes. On the west side of the central space this gallery is twobays deep (i.e. composed of two aisles instead of one), while on the other sides, including on the side of themihrab, the galleries are just one bay deep.[10]: 238 Several other mosques in Algiers built from the 17th to early 19th centuries had a similar floor plan.[10]: 237–238 [9]: 426–432 This particular design was unprecedented in the Maghreb. The use of a large central dome was a clear connection with Ottoman architecture. However, the rest of the layout is quite different from the mosques of metropolitan Ottoman architecture in cities like Istanbul. Some scholars, such asGeorges Marçais, suggested that the architects or patrons could have been influenced by Ottoman-era mosques built in theLevantine provinces of the empire, where many of the rulers of Algiers had originated.[10]: 238 [9]: 432
The most notable monument from this period in Algiers is theNew Mosque (Djamaa el Djedid) in Algiers, built in 1660–1661.[10]: 239 [9]: 433 The mosque has a large central dome supported by four pillars, but instead of being surrounded by smaller domes it is flanked on four sides by widebarrel-vaulted spaces, with small domed or vaulted bays occupying the corners between these barrel vaults. The barrel-vaulted space on the north side of the dome (the entrance side) is elongated, giving the main vaulted spaces of the mosque a cross-like configuration resembling aChristian cathedral.[10]: 239–241 The mosque's minaret has a traditional form with a square shaft surmounted by a smalllantern structure. Its simple decoration includes tilework; theclock faces visible today were added at a later period. Themihrab has a more traditional western Islamic form, with a horseshoe-arch shape and stucco decoration, although the decoration around it is crowned with Ottoman-style half-medallion and quarter-medallion shapes.[10]: 239–241 [9]: 433–434 The mosque's overall design and its details thus attest to an apparent mix of Ottoman, Maghrebi, and European influences. As the architect is unknown, Jonathan Bloom suggests that it could very well have been a local architect who simply took the general idea of Ottoman mosque architecture and developed his own interpretation of it.[10]: 240–241
Certain aspects and traditions of Moorish architecture were brought to the Iberian colonies in the Americas.Günter Weimer [pt] outlines the influence of Arab and Amazigh substrates in popular architecture in Brazil, noting the considerable number of architectural terms in Portuguese inherited from Arabic, includingmuxarabi (مشربية) andaçoteia [pt] (السُطيحةlit. 'little roof').[85]: 91–107 Elements of Mudéjar architecture, derived from Islamic architectural traditions and assimilated intoSpanish architecture, are found in the architecture of the Spanish colonies.[86][87] The Islamic and Mudéjar style of decorative wooden ceilings, known in Spanish asarmadura, proved particularly popular in both Spain and its colonies.[18][87] Examples of Mudéjar-influenced colonial architecture are concentrated in Mexico and Central America, including some in what is now the southwestern United States.[88]: 300
Later, particularly in the 19th century, the Moorish Islamic style was frequently imitated by theNeo-Moorish or Moorish Revival style which emerged in the Europe and North America as part of theRomanticistinterest in the "Orient".[19] The term "Moorish" or "neo-Moorish" sometimes also covered an appropriation of motifs from a wider range of Islamic architecture.[19][89] This style was a recurring choice for Jewishsynagogue architecture of the era, where it was seen as an appropriate way to mark Judaism's non-European origins.[19][90][91] Similar to Neo-Moorish,Néo-Mudéjar was a revivalist style evident in late 19th and early 20th-century Spain and in someSpanish Colonial architecture in northern Morocco.[92][93][20] During theFrench occupation of Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, the French colonial administration also encouraged, in some cases, the use of indigenous North African orarabisant ("Arabizing") motifs in new buildings.[94]
The architecture of the western Islamic world is exemplified by mosques,madrasas, palaces, fortifications,hammams (bathhouses),funduqs (caravanserais), and other historic building types common to Islamic architecture. Characteristic elements of the western regional style includehorseshoe-shaped,intersecting, andpolylobed arches, often with voussoirs of alternating colors or patterns, as well as internal courtyards, riad gardens, ribbed domes, andcuboid (square-base) minarets. Decoration typically consists of vegetal arabesques, geometric motifs,muqarnas sculpting, Arabic inscriptions, and epigraphic motifs. These motifs were translated into woodwork,carved stucco, and mosaic tilework known aszellij.[9][10]: 11 [13]: 121, 155 The nature of the medieval Islamic world encouraged people to travel, which made it possible for artists, craftsmen, and ideas from other parts of the Islamic world to be transmitted here. Some features, such asmuqarnas and tile revetments, were transmitted from the east but were realized differently in this region.[10]: 11–12
As scholarJonathan Bloom remarks in his introduction to this topic, traditional Islamic-era architecture in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus was in some respects more "conservative" than other regional styles ofIslamic architecture, in the sense that these buildings were less structurally ambitious than, for example, the increasingly audacious domed or vaulted structures that developed inOttoman architecture andIranian architecture.[10]: 10 With the exception of minarets, Moorish monuments were rarely very tall and Moorish architecture persisted in using the hypostyle hall – one of the earliest types of structures in Islamic architecture[13][95] – as the main type of interior space throughout its history.[10][9] Moreover, Moorish architecture also continued an early Islamic tradition of avoiding ostentatious exterior decoration or exterior monumentality. With the important exception of gateways and minarets, the exteriors of buildings were often very plain, while the interiors were the focus of architectural innovation and could be lavishly decorated. By contrast, architectural styles in the eastern parts of the Islamic world developed significantly different and innovative spatial arrangements in their construction of domed halls or vaultediwans and featured increasingly imposing and elaborate exteriors that dominated their surroundings.[10]: 10
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Perhaps the most characteristic arch type of western Islamic architecture generally is the so-called "Moorish" or "horseshoe" arch. This is an arch where the curves of the arch continue downward past the horizontal middle axis of the circle and begin to curve towards each other, rather than just forming a half circle.[17]: 15 This arch profile became nearly ubiquitous in the region from the very beginning of the Islamic period.[9]: 45 The origin of this arch appear to date back to the preceding Byzantine period across the Mediterranean, as versions of it appear in Byzantine-era buildings inCappadocia,Armenia, andSyria. They also appear frequently in Visigothic churches in the Iberian peninsula (5th–7th centuries). Perhaps due to this Visigothic influence, horseshoe arches were particularly predominant afterwards in al-Andalus under the Umayyads of Cordoba, although the "Moorish" arch was of a slightly different and more sophisticated form than the Visigothic arch.[9]: 163–164 [3]: 43 Arches were not only used for supporting the weight of the structure above them.Blind arches and arched niches were also used as decorative elements. The mihrab of a mosque was almost invariably in the shape of horseshoe arch.[9]: 164 [17]
Starting in the Almoravid period, the first pointed or "broken" horseshoe arches began to appear in the region and became more widespread during the Almohad period. This arch is likely of North African origin, since pointed arches were already present in earlierFatimid architecture further east.[9]: 234
Polylobed (or multifoil) arches, have their earliest precedents inFatimid architecture in Ifriqiya and Egypt and had also appeared in AndalusiTaifa architecture such as the Aljaferia palace and theAlcazaba of Malaga, which elaborated on the existing examples of al-Hakam II's extension to the Great Mosque of Cordoba. In the Almoravid and Almohad periods, this type of arch was further refined for decorative functions while horseshoe arches continued to be standard elsewhere.[9]: 232–234 Some early examples appear in the Great Mosque of Tlemcen (in Algeria) and the Mosque ofTinmal.[9]: 232
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The so-called "lambrequin" arch,[9][17] with a more intricate profile of lobes and points, was also introduced in the Almoravid period, with an early appearance in the funerary section of the Qarawiyyin Mosque (in Fes) dating from the early 12th century.[9]: 232 It then became common in subsequent Almohad, Marinid, and Nasrid architecture, in many cases used to highlight the arches near the mihrab area of a mosque.[9] This type of arch is also sometimes referred to as a "muqarnas" arch due to its similarities with amuqarnas profile and because of its speculated derivation from the use of muqarnas itself.[9]: 232 Moreover, this type of arch was indeed commonly used withmuqarnas sculpting along theintrados (inner surfaces) of the arch.[9][96][17]
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Although domes and vaulting were not extensively used in western Islamic architecture, domes were still employed as decorative features to highlight certain areas, such as the space in front of themihrab in a mosque. In the extension of the Great Mosque of Córdoba by al-Hakam II in the late 10th century, three domes were built over the maqsura (the privileged space in front of the mihrab) and another one in the central nave or aisle of the prayer hall at the beginning of the new extension. These domes were constructed asribbed vaults. Rather than meeting in the centre of the dome, the "ribs" intersect one another off-center, forming a square or an octagon in the centre.[97]
The ribbed domes of the Mosque of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the Bab al-Mardum Mosque in Toledo was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed dome, surrounded by eight other ribbed domes of varying design.[10]: 79 Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of the Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the Maghreb: the central dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a masterpiece of the Almoravids founded in 1082 and redecorated in 1136, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work.[97][98]
In Ifriqiya, certain domes from the 9th and 10th centuries, of a quite different style, are also particularly accomplished in their design and decoration. These are the 9th-century (Aghlabid) dome in front of the mihrab in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the 10th-century (Zirid)Qubbat al-Bahw dome in the Al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis. Both are elegant ribbed domes with stonework flourishes such as decorative niches, inscriptions, and shell-shaped squinches.[10]: 30–32, 86–87
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Arabesques, or stylizedfloral andvegetal motifs, derive from a long tradition of similar motifs in Syrian,Hellenistic, andRoman architectural ornamentation.[9][17] Early arabesque motifs in Umayyad Cordoba, such as those seen at the Great Mosque or Madinat al-Zahra, continued to make use ofacanthus leaves andgrapevine motifs from this Hellenistic tradition. Almoravid and Almohad architecture made more use of a general striated leaf motif, often curling and splitting into unequal parts along an axis of symmetry.[9][17]Palmettes and, to a lesser extent,seashell andpine cone images were also featured.[9][17] In the late 16th century, Saadian architecture sometimes made use of amandorla-type (oralmond-shaped) motif which may have been ofOttoman influence.[80]: 128
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Various types of interlacing lozenge-like motifs are heavily featured on the surface of minarets starting in the Almohad period (12th–13th centuries) and are later found in other decoration such as carved stucco along walls in Marinid and Nasrid architecture, eventually becoming a standard feature in the western Islamic ornamental repertoire in combination with arabesques.[17][9] This motif, typically calledsebka (meaning "net"),[24]: 80 [99] is believed by some scholars to have originated with the largeinterlacing arches in the 10th-century extension of the Great Mosque of Cordoba by Caliph al-Hakam II.[9]: 257–258 It was then miniaturized and widened into a repeating net-like pattern that can cover surfaces. This motif, in turn, had many detailed variations. One common version, calleddarj wa ktaf ("step and shoulder") by Moroccan craftsmen, makes use of alternating straight and curved lines which cross each other on their symmetrical axes, forming a motif that looks roughly like afleur-de-lys orpalmette shape.[9]: 232 [17]: 32 Another version, also commonly found on minarets in alternation with thedarj wa ktaf, consists of interlacing multifoil/polylobed arches which form a repeating partialtrefoil shape.[17]: 32, 34
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Geometric patterns, most typically making use of intersecting straight lines which are rotated to form a radiating star-like pattern, were common in Islamic architecture generally and across Moorish architecture. These are found in carved stucco and wood decoration, and most notably inzellij mosaic tilework which became commonplace in Moorish architecture from the 13th century onward. Otherpolygon motifs are also found, often in combination with arabesques.[9][17]
In addition tozellij tiles, geometric motifs were also predominant in the decoration and composition of wooden ceilings. One of the most famous examples of such ceilings, considered the masterpiece of its kind, is the ceiling of theSalón de Embajadores in the Comares Palace at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. The ceiling, composed of 8,017 individual wooden pieces joined into a pyramid-like dome, consists of a recurring 16-pointed star motif which is believed to have symbolized theSeven Heavens ofParadise described in theQur'an (specifically theSurat al-Mulk, which is also inscribed at the ceiling's base).[10]: 159 Like other stucco and wood decoration, it would have originally been painted in different colours order to enhance its motifs.[100]: 44
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Many Islamic monuments feature inscriptions of one kind or another which serve to either decorate or inform, or both.Arabic calligraphy, as in other parts of the Muslim world, was also an art form. Many buildings had foundation inscriptions which record the date of their construction and the patron who sponsored it. Inscriptions could also feature Qur'anic verses, exhortations of God, and other religiously significant passages. Early inscriptions were generally written in theKufic script, a style where letters were written with straight lines and had fewer flourishes.[9][17]: 38 At a slightly later period, mainly in the 11th century, Kufic letters were enhanced with ornamentation, particularly to fill the empty spaces that were usually present above the letters. This resulted in the addition of floral forms or arabesque backgrounds to calligraphic compositions.[9]: 251 In the 12th century the cursiveNaskh script began to appear, though it only became commonplace in monuments from the Marinid and Nasrid period (13th–15th century) onward.[9]: 250, 351–352 [17]: 38 Kufic was still employed, especially for more formal or solemn inscriptions such as religious content.[17]: 38 [9]: 250, 351–352 However, from the 13th century onward Kufic became increasingly stylized and almost illegible.[102] In the decoration of the Alhambra, one can find examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots.[103][104] This style is also found in other parts of the Islamic world and may have had its origins in Iran.[105][106] The extensions of the letters could turn into strips or lines that continued to form more motifs or form the edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription.[107]: 269 As a result, Kufic script could be used in a more strictly decorative form, as the starting point for an interlacing or knotted motif that could be woven into a larger arabesque background.[9]: 351–352
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Muqarnas (also calledmocárabe in Spain), sometimes referred to as "honeycomb" or "stalactite" carvings, consists of a three-dimensional geometric prismatic motif which is among the most characteristic features of Islamic architecture. This technique originated further east inIran before spreading across the Muslim world.[9]: 237 It was first introduced into al-Andalus and the western Maghreb by the Almoravids, who made early use of it in early 12th century in theQubba Ba'adiyyin in Marrakesh and in the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fes.[14][51][9]: 237 While the earliest forms of muqarnas in Islamic architecture were used assquinches or pendentives at the corners of domes,[9]: 237 they were quickly adapted to other architectural uses. In the western Islamic world they were particularly dynamic and were used, among other examples, to enhance entire vaulted ceilings, fill in certain vertical transitions between different architectural elements, and even to highlight the presence of windows on otherwise flat surfaces.[9][65][17]
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Tilework, particularly in the form of mosaic tilework calledzellij, is a standard decorative element along lower walls and for the paving of floors across the region. It consists of hand-cut pieces offaience in different colours fitted together to form elaborate geometric motifs, often based on radiating star patterns.[65][9] Zellij made its appearance in the region during the 10th century and became widespread by the 14th century during the Marinid and Nasrid period.[65] It may have been inspired or derived fromByzantine mosaics and then adapted by Muslim craftsmen for faience tiles.[65]
In the traditional Moroccan craft ofzellij-making, the tiles are first fabricated inglazed squares, typically 10 cm per side, then cut by hand into a variety of pre-established shapes (usually memorizedby heart) necessary to form the overall pattern.[17] This pre-established repertoire of shapes combined to generate a variety of complex patterns is also known as thehasba method.[108] Although the exact patterns vary from case to case, the underlying principles have been constant for centuries and Moroccan craftsmen are still adept at making them today.[17][108]
Ariad (sometimes spelledriyad; Arabic:رياض) is an interior garden found in many Moorish palaces and mansions. It is typically rectangular and divided into four parts along its central axes, with a fountain at its middle.[54] Riad gardens probably originated inPersian architecture (where it is also known aschahar bagh) and became a prominent feature in Moorish palaces in Spain (such Madinat al-Zahra, the Aljaferia, and the Alhambra).[54] In Morocco, they became especially widespread in the palaces and mansions of Marrakesh, where the combination of available space and warm climate made them particularly appealing.[54] The term is nowadays applied in a broader way to traditional Moroccan houses that have been converted into hotels and tourist guesthouses.[109][110]
Many royal palaces were also accompanied by vastpleasure gardens, sometimes built outside the main defensive walls or within their own defensive enclosure. This tradition is evident in the gardens of the Madinat al-Zahra built by the Caliphs of Cordoba (10th century), in the Agdal Gardens south of the Kasbah of Marrakesh created by the Almohads (12th century), theMosara Garden created by the Marinids north of their palace-city of Fes el-Jdid (13th century), and the Generalife created by the Nasrids east of the Alhambra (13th century).[9][56][68]
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Historically, there was a distinction between regular mosques andFriday mosques, which were larger and had a more important status by virtue of being the venue where thekhutba (sermon) was delivered on Fridays.[36] In the early Islamic era there was typically only one Friday mosque per city, but over time Friday mosques multiplied until it was common practice to have one in every neighbourhood or district of the city.[111][96] Mosques could also frequently be accompanied by other facilities which served the community.[96][56]
Most mosques in the region have roughly rectangular floor plans and follow thehypostyle format: they consist of a large prayer hall divided into naves or aisles by rows of horseshoe arches that run either parallel or perpendicular to theqibla wall (the wall towards which prayers faced). Theqibla (direction of prayer) is symbolized by a decorative niche or alcove in theqibla wall, known as amihrab.[17] Next to the mihrab there is usually a symbolic pulpit known as aminbar, usually in the form of a staircase leading to a small kiosk or platform, where the imam would stand to deliver thekhutba. The mosque also normally includes asahn (courtyard) which often has a fountain or water basin to assist withablutions. In early periods this courtyard could be relatively minor in proportion to the rest of the mosque, but in later periods (in Morocco at least) it became progressively larger until it was equal in size to the prayer hall and sometimes larger.[80][96]
Hypostyle mosques also frequently follow the "T-type" model, in which the nave between the arches running towards themihrab (perpendicular to theqibla wall) was wider than the others, as was also the aisle directly in front of and along theqibla wall (running parallel to it), thus forming a T-shaped space in the floor plan of the mosque. This part of the plan was often accentuated by greater decoration, such as more elaborate arch shapes or decorative cupola ceilings at each end of the "T").[96][80][56]
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From afar, mosque buildings are distinguished by theirminaret towers. Minarets traditionally have a square shaft and are arranged in two tiers: the main shaft, which makes up most of its height, and a much smaller secondary tower above this which is in turn topped by afinial of copper or brass spheres.[9][10] Some minarets in North Africa have octagonal shafts, though this is more characteristic of certain regions or periods.[65][23] Inside the main shaft a staircase, and in other cases a ramp, ascends to the top.[9][10]
The floor plan of a mosque is also aligned with the direction of prayer, sometimes even at odds with the orientation of the streets around it.[54] Today it is standard practice that the direction of prayer is the line marking the shortest distance between oneself and theKaaba in Mecca. In the western Mediterranean, this corresponds to a generally eastern orientation (varying slightly depending on your exact position).[112] However, in early Islamic periods there were other interpretations of what theqibla should be. In the western Islamic world in particular, early mosques often had a southern orientation, as can be seen in major monuments like the Great Mosque of Cordoba and the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fes. This was based on a reportedhadith of the Islamic prophet Muhammad which stated that "what is between the east and west is aqibla", as well as on a popular view that mosques should follow the cardinal alignment of the Kaaba itself, whose axes are aligned according to certain astronomical references (e.g. its minor axis is aligned with the sunrise of thesummer solstice).[113][112][54]
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Synagogues had a very different layout from mosques but in North Africa and Al-Andalus they often shared similar decorative trends as the traditional Islamic architecture around them, such ascolourful tilework and carved stucco,[114][115] though later synagogues in North Africa were built in other styles too. Notable examples of historic synagogues in Spain include theSynagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form in 1250),[73] theSynagogue of Cordoba (1315),[74] and theSynagogue of El Tránsito in Toledo (1355–1357). In Morocco they include theIbn Danan Synagogue in Fes, theSlat al-Azama Synagogue in Marrakesh, and theBeth-El Synagogue in Casablanca, though numerous other examples exist.[116][117] One of the most famous historic synagogues in Tunisia is the 19th-centuryEl Ghriba synagogue.
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The madrasa was an institution which originated in northeastern Iran by the early 11th century and was progressively adopted further west.[9][17] It provided higher education and served to trainIslamic scholars, particularly inIslamic law and jurisprudence (fiqh), most commonly in theMaliki branch of Sunni legal thought. The madrasa of the Sunni world was generally antithetical to more heterodox religious doctrines, including thedoctrine espoused by the Almohads. As such, in the westernmost parts of the Islamic world it only came to flourish in the late 13th century, under the Marinid, Zayyanid, and Hafsid dynasties that succeeded the Almohads.[9][10]
In other parts of the Muslim world, the founders of madrasas could name themselves or their family members as administrators of the foundation'swaqf (a charitable and inalienableendowment), making them a convenient means of protecting family fortunes, but this was not allowed under the Maliki school of law that was dominant in the western Islamic lands. As a result, the construction of madrasas was less prolific in the Maghreb and al-Andalus than it was further east. Madrasas in this region are also frequently named after their location or some other distinctive physical feature, rather than after their founders (as was common further east).[10]: 178
Madrasas were generally centered around a main courtyard with a central fountain, off which other rooms could be accessed. Student living quarters were typically distributed on an upper floor around the courtyard. Many madrasas also included a prayer hall with a mihrab, though only the Bou Inania Madrasa of Fes officially functioned as a full mosque and featured its own minaret.[67][9][10]
MostMuslim graves are traditionally simple and unadorned, but in North Africa the graves of important figures were often covered in a domed structure (or a cupola of often pyramidal shape) called aqubba (also spelledkoubba). This was especially characteristic for the tombs of "saints" such aswalis andmarabouts: individuals who came to be venerated for their strong piety, reputed miracles, or other mystical attributes. Many of these existed within the wider category of Islamic mysticism known asSufism. Some of these tombs became the focus of entire religious complexes built around them, known as azawiya (also spelledzaouia;Arabic:زاوية).[56][9][118] They typically included a mosque, school, and other charitable facilities.[9] Such religious establishments were major centers of Sufism across the region and grew in power and influence over the centuries, often associated with specificSufi Brotherhoods or schools of thought.[56][10][22]
Afunduq (also spelledfoundouk orfondouk; Arabic:فندق) was acaravanserai or commercial building which served as both an inn for merchants and a warehouse for their goods and merchandise.[9][17][54] In North Africa some funduqs also housed the workshops of local artisans.[36] As a result of this function, they also became centers for other commercial activities such asauctions and markets.[36] They typically consisted of a large central courtyard surrounded by a gallery, around which storage rooms and sleeping quarters were arranged, frequently over multiple floors. Some were relatively simple and plain, while others, like theFunduq al-Najjarin in Fes, were quite richly decorated.[65] While many structures of this kind can be found in historic North African cities, the only one in Al-Andalus to have been preserved is the Nasrid-eraCorral del Carbón in Granada.[119][10]
Hammams (Arabic:حمّام) arepublic bathhouses which were ubiquitous in Muslim cities. Essentially derived from theRoman bathhouse model, hammams normally consisted of four main chambers: a changing room, from which one then moved on to a cold room, a warm room, and a hot room.[9]: 215–216, 315–316 [120] Heat and steam were generated by ahypocaust system which heated the floors. The furnace re-used natural organic materials (such as wood shavings, olive pits, or other organic waste byproducts) by burning them for fuel.[121] The smoke generated by this furnace helped with heating the floors while excess smoke was evacuated through chimneys. Of the different rooms, only the changing room was heavily decorated withzellij,stucco, or carved wood.[9]: 316 The cold, warm, and hot rooms were usuallyvaulted or domed chambers without windows, designed to keep steam from escaping, but partially lit thanks to small holes in the ceiling which could be covered by ceramic or coloured glass.[9]: 316 Many historic hammams have been preserved in cities like Marrakesh and Fez in Morocco, partly thanks to their continued use by locals up to the present day.[122][120][123] In Al-Andalus, by contrast, they fell out of use after the expulsion of Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula and are only preserved as archeological sites or historic monuments.[124]
The main palaces of rulers were usually located inside a separate fortified district or citadel of the capital city. These citadels included a complex of different structures including administrative offices, official venues for ceremonies and receptions, functional amenities (such as warehouses, kitchens, and hammams), and the private residences of the ruler and his family. Although palace architecture varied from one period and region to the next, certain traits recurred such as the predominance of courtyards and internal gardens around which elements of the palace were typically centered.[9][12]
In some cases, rulers were installed in the existing fortified citadel of the city, such as the manyAlcazabas andAlcázars in Spain, or theKasbahs of North Africa. The originalAlcazar of Cordoba, used by the Umayyad emirs and their predecessors, was an early example of this. When Cordoba first became the capital of Al-Andalus in the 8th century the early Muslim governors simply moved into the former Visigothic palace, which was eventually redeveloped and modified by the Umayyad rulers after them. The Alcázar of Seville was also occupied and rebuilt in different periods by different rulers. In Marrakesh, Morocco, the Almohad Caliphs in the late 12th century built a large new palace district, theKasbah, on the south side of the city, which was subsequently occupied and rebuilt by the later Saadian and 'Alawi dynasties. In Al-Andalus many palace enclosures were highly fortifiedalcazabas located on hilltops overlooking the rest of the city, such as theAlcazaba of Almería and theAlcazaba of Málaga, which were occupied by the various governors and local rulers. The most famous of all these, however, is the Alhambra of Granada, which was built up by the Nasrid dynasty during the 13th to 15th centuries.[9][12][10]
Rulers with enough resources sometimes founded entirely separate and autonomous royal cities outside their capital cities, such as Madinat al-Zahra, built by Abd ar-Rahman III outside Cordoba, or Fes el-Jdid built by the Marinids outsideold Fez. Some rulers even built entirely new capital cities centered on their palaces, such as the Qal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007 by the Hammadids in present-day Algeria, and Mahdia, begun in 916 by the Fatimid Caliphs in present-day Tunisia.[12] In many periods and regions rulers also built outlying private estates with gardens in the countryside. As early as the 8th century, for example, Abd ar-Rahman I possessed such estates in the countryside outside Cordoba. The later Nasrid-built Generalife, located on the mountainside a short distance outside the Alhambra, is also an example of outlying residence and garden made for the private use of the rulers. Moroccan sultans also built pleasure pavilions or residences within the vast gardens and orchards that they maintained outside their cities, notably the Menara Gardens and Agdal Gardens on the outskirts of Marrakesh.[9][12]
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The remains of castles and fortifications from various periods of Al-Andalus have survived across Spain and Portugal, often situated on hilltops and elevated positions that command the surrounding countryside. A large number of Arabic terms were used to denote different types and functions, many of which were borrowed into Spanish and are found in present-daytoponyms, such asAlcazaba (from Arabic:القَـصَـبَـة,romanized: al-qaṣabah), meaning a fortified enclosure orcitadel where the governor or ruler was typically installed, andAlcázar (from Arabic:القصر,romanized: al-qaṣr), which was typically a palace protected by fortifications.[125][3] Fortifications were built either in stone or inrammed earth. Stone was used more commonly in the Umayyad period (8th–10th centuries) while rammed earth became more common in subsequent periods and was also more common in the south.[3][125]
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In the Umayyad period (8th–10th centuries) an extensive network of border fortifications stretched in a wide line roughly from Lisbon in the west then up through theCentral System of mountains in Spain, around the region of Madrid, and up to the region of Navarre and Huesca in the northeast.[125]: 63 Castles and fortified garrisons existed in the interior of the realm as well.[3] Many of these early fortifications had relatively simple designs with no barbicans and only a single line of walls. The gates were typically straight entrances with an inner and outer doorway on the same axis.[3]: 100, 116 Castles typically had quadrangular layouts with walls reinforced by rectangular towers.[125]: 67 The authorities also built multitudes of small, usually round, watch towers which could rapidly send messages to each other via fire or smoke signals.[125]: 66
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Following the collapse of the Caliphate in the 11th century, the resulting political insecurity encouraged further fortification of cities.[3]: 115 Military architecture also became steadily more complex. Fortified gates began to regularly includebent entrances.[3]: 116 Military technology grew still more sophisticated during the Almohad period (12th and early 13th centuries), with barbicans appearing in front of city walls andalbarrana towers appearing as a recurring innovation.[3]: 166 Fortification towers also became taller and more massive, sometimes with round or polygonal bases but more commonly still rectangular. Some of the more famous tower fortifications from this period include theCalahorra Tower in Cordoba and theTorre del Oro in Seville. The latter is adodecagonal tower which fortified a corner of the city walls and which, along with another tower across the river, protected the city's harbour.[3]: 166
In the final period from the 13th to 15th centuries, fortresses and towns were again refortified. In addition to the fortifications of Granada and its Alhambra, the Nasrids built or rebuilt theGibralfaro Castle ofMálaga and the castle ofAntequera, and many smaller strategic hilltop forts like that ofTabernas.[3]: 212 This late period saw the construction of massive towers andkeeps which likely reflected a growing influence of Christian military architecture.[3]: 212 [9]: 322
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Some of the oldest surviving Islamic-era monuments in the Maghreb are military structures in present-day Tunisia. The best-known examples are theRibat of Sousse and theRibat of Monastir, both dating generally from the Aghlabid period in the 9th century. Aribat was a type of residential fortress which was built to guard the early frontiers of Muslim territory in North Africa. They were built at intervals along the coastline so that they could signal each other from afar. Also dating from the same period are the city walls ofSousse andSfax, both made in stone and bearing similarities to earlier Byzantine-Roman walls in Africa.[9]: 29–36 [10]: 25–27
Several ruling dynasties in the region built fortified capitals or citadels. The Fatimids built a heavily fortified new capital at Mahdia in present-day Tunisia, located on a narrow peninsula extending from the coastline into the sea and surrounded by walls and a single land gate.[9]: 89–91 [10]: 47 The Hammadids also built a new fortified capital in present-day Algeria known asQal'at Bani Hammad in the 11th century, located on a strategic elevated site. Along with the earlier Zirid fortifications ofBijaya and'Ashir, its walls were made mainly of rough stone orrubble stone, demonstrating a slow shift in construction methods away from earlier Byzantine-Roman methods and towards more characteristically North African and Berber architecture.[9]: 92 The later Marinids fortified their palace-city ofFes el-Jdid, built in the late 13th century, with a line of double walls.[127]
Starting with the Almoravid and Almohad domination of the 11th–13th centuries, most medieval fortifications in the western Maghreb shared many characteristics with those of Al-Andalus.[54][9] City walls in Morocco were generally built out of rammed earth, reinforced at regular intervals by square towers, as exemplified by thewalls of Marrakesh, thewalls of Fes, and the walls of Rabat.[54][65][68] In western Algeria, the walls of Tlemcen (formerly Tagrart) were likewise partly built by the Almoravids with a mix of rubble stone at the base and rammed earth above.[9]: 220 As elsewhere, the gates were often the weakest points of a defensive wall and so were usually more heavily fortified than the surrounding wall. In Morocco, gates were often designed with a bent entrance.[114][128][54]
In later centuries, Moroccan rulers continued to build traditional walls and fortifications while at the same time borrowing elements from European military architecture in the newgunpowder age, most likely through their encounters with the Portuguese and other European powers at this time. The Saadian bastions of Fes, such asBorj Nord, are one early example of these architectural innovations.[9][80]
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"Kasbah", ortighremt inAmazigh, can also refer to various fortresses or fortified mansions in theAtlas Mountains and the desertoases regions of Morocco.[129] In these regions, often traditionally Amazigh (Berber) areas, kasbahs are again made of rammed earth and mud-brick (or sometimes stone), often marked by square corner towers and decorated with simple geometric motifs.[129][130] Communalfortified granaries are another feature of local Berber architecture in southern Morocco, Algeria, and southern Tunisia, with styles and layouts differing from region to region.[131]
Many important examples of Moorish architecture are located in Europe, in the Iberian Peninsula (in the former territories of Al-Andalus), with an especially strong concentration in southern Spain (modern-dayAndalusia). There is also a high concentration of historic Islamic architecture in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The types of monuments that have been preserved vary greatly between regions and between periods. For example, the historic palaces of North Africa have rarely been preserved, whereas Spain retains multiple major examples of Islamic palace architecture that are among the best-studied in the world. By contrast, few major mosques from later periods have been preserved in Spain, whereas many historic mosques are still standing and still being used in North Africa.[10]: 12–13 [12]: xvii–xviii
The authors of this volume are conscious of the contested terminology ofMudéjar and the negative connotations of the termMoorish. They are used here as denominators of two phenomena that have been essentially shaped in the 19th century. When speaking of the Islamic architecture of al- Andalus, the term Moorish is rejected. In these cases, the terms Ibero-Islamic orandalusí are used.
Some terms such as "Saracenic," "Mohammedan," and "Moorish" are no longer fashionable.
Term used specifically in the 19th century to describe a Western style based on the architecture and decorative arts of the Muslim inhabitants (the Moors) of northwest Africa and (between 8th and 15th centuries) of southern Spain; it is often used imprecisely to include Arab and Indian influences
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