Themonk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), also known as themonk parrot orQuaker parrot, is a species oftrue parrot in the familyPsittacidae. It is a small to medium, bright-greenparrot with a greyish breast and greenish-yellow abdomen. Its average lifespan is approximately 15 years. It originates from thetemperate tosubtropical areas ofSouth America. Self-sustainingferal populations occur in many places, mainly in areas of similar climate inNorth America andEurope.
The monk parakeet was described by French polymathGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, in 1780 in hisHistoire Naturelle des Oiseaux.[2] The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved byFrançois-Nicolas Martinet in thePlanches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle, which was produced under the supervision ofEdme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text.[3] Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name, but in 1783, Dutch naturalistPieter Boddaert coined thebinomial namePsittacus monachus in his catalogue of thePlanches Enluminées.[4] As Buffon did not specify the origin of his specimen, in 1937 the American ornithologistJames Peters assigned thetype location asMontevideo, Uruguay.[5] The monk parakeet is now placed in thegenusMyiopsitta that was introduced by French naturalistCharles Lucien Bonaparte in 1854.[6][7] The genus name combines theAncient Greekmus, muos meaning "mouse" and theNeo-Latinpsitta meaning "parrot", alluding to the mouse-grey face and underparts. The specific epithetmonachus isLate Latin for "monk".[8]
The monk parakeet is one of two species in the genusMyiopsitta, the other being thecliff parakeet (Myiopsitta luchsi). The latter was previously treated as a subspecies of the Monk Parakeet. Due to morphological and behavioural differences, and geographical dissimilarities, theInternational Ornithological Committee elevated the cliff parakeet to species status in 2015.[9]BirdLife International'sHandbook of the Birds of the World followed suit in 2020 and the South American Classification Committee of theAmerican Ornithological Society in late 2024.[10][11] As of late 2024 theClements taxonomy retains the cliff parakeet as a subspecies of the monk parakeet.[12] The monk and cliff parakeets' elevational ranges apparently do not overlap, so they are thus entirely, but just barely,allopatric.[13]
M. m. calita(Boddaert, 1783) is found in theAndean foothills up to 1,000 mabove mean sea level, from southeasternBolivia (Santa Cruz andTarija departments) toParaguay and northwestern Argentina, then west of the range ofmonachus, extending into the lowlands again inRío Negro and possiblyChubut provinces. Smaller thanmonachus, wings more prominently blue, grey of head darker.
The subspecies' ranges meet in the general area of Paraguay, and there they are insufficiently delimited. The distinctness and delimitation ofM. m. calita andM. m. cotorra especially require further study.
Thenominate subspecies of this parrot is 29 cm (11 in) long on average, with a 48-centimetre (19 in) wingspan, and weighs 100 g (3.5 oz). Females tend to be 10–20% smaller, but can only be reliably sexed by DNA or feather testing. Monk parakeets display very subtlesexual dimorphism in the colouration of their crown and wing coverts, but this is not noticeable to the human eye.[16] It has bright-green upperparts. The forehead and breast are pale grey with darker scalloping and the rest of the underparts are very light-green to yellow. Theremiges are dark blue, and the tail is long and tapering. The bill is orange. The call is a loud and throatychape(-yee) orquak quaki quak-wi quarr, and screechesskveet.[14][13]
Domestic breeds in colours other than the natural plumage have been produced. These include birds with white, blue, and yellow in place of green.[citation needed] As such colouration provides less camouflage, feral birds are usually of wild-type colouration.[citation needed]
The monk parakeet and the cliff parakeet are the only two parrot species outside some members of theAfrican lovebirds (Agapornis sp.)[17] that buildnests. Monk and cliff parakeets are unique among even nesting parrots for their construction of large, external nests in trees or manmade structures instead of using tree cavities.[18]
The monk parrot is agregarious species which often breeds colonially, building a single large nest with separate entrances for each pair.[18][19] It is not uncommon, however, for pairs or individuals to nest outside of colonies, especially during the breeding season.[19] In the wild, the colonies can become quite large, with pairs occupying separate "apartments" in composite nests that can reach the size of a smallautomobile.[citation needed] These nests can attract many other tenants, including some which cohabit with the monk parakeets.[20] These tenants include many other birds, such aspigeons,sparrows,American kestrels, andyellow-billed teal, but mammals likered squirrels may also occupy a nest.[18][20][21]
Their 1–11 white eggs are incubated continuously by the female, during which time the male will provide her with food.[18][22] Unusually for a parrot, monk parakeet pairs occasionally have helper individuals, often grown offspring, which assist with feeding the young (seekin selection).[citation needed]
Monk parakeets have an average lifespan in their natural environment of 6 years.[23] However, birds in captivity can reach 10 – 20 years.[24][25]
Monk parakeets probably have individual voice prints that allow them to recognize each other, independently from the used call type.[26]
In both their native South America, as well as areas where they have been introduced, monk parakeets are among the most destructive birds for crops.[27][28][29] Several countries have implemented measures to control the spread of feral populations; nest removal is a common practice in the United States,[30] and the United Kingdom'sDepartment for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs is planning to remove monk parakeet colonies, citing threats to infrastructure and potential crop damage.[31]
Feral populations are often descended from very small founder populations.[citation needed] Being as social and intelligent as they are, monk parakeets develop some culturaltraditions, namely vocaldialects that differ between groups.[citation needed] In populations descended from a large number of birds, a range of "dialects" exists. If the founder population is small, however, a process similar togenetic drift may occur if prominent founders vocalize in an unusual "dialect", with this particular way of vocalizing becoming established in the resulting feral colony. For example, no fewer than three different "dialects" occur among the feral monk parrots of theMilford, Connecticut, metropolitan area.[32]
In its native range, the monk parakeet is very common.[1] In Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay, monk parakeets are regarded as major agricultural pests (as noted byCharles Darwin, among others).[33] Their population explosion in South American rural areas seems to be associated with the expansion ofeucalyptusforestry for paper pulp production, which offers the bird the opportunity to build protected nests in artificial forests where ecological competition from other species is limited.[14][33]
It is estimated that monk parakeets in Spain account for more than 80% of Europe's feral population.[36] As an invasive species, it harms local fauna such as pigeons and sparrows, as well as crops. Spain has outlawed the possession and trafficking of monk parakeets since 2013.[37] Madrid had the greatest population of monk parakeets in Europe, with 10,800 as of June 2015,[38] and the population in Barcelona was estimated at 5,000 in the same year.[39] Between 2013 and 2021, the monk parakeet population in Seville increased from 1,200 to 6,300 individuals.[40]
Other locations with documented populations include:
In the United Kingdom, theDepartment for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs announced plans in 2011 to control them, countering the threat to infrastructure, crops, and native British wildlife by trapping and rehoming, removing nests, and shooting when necessary.[43]
Groups of monk parakeets can be found in theBelgian capital cityBrussels and its surrounding areas. They have been living in the wild at least since the 1970s.[44]
Monk parakeet populations have previously been reported inDenmark,[41]Germany,[41][45]Austria, andCzechia,[41] but have not survived; the relatively colder weather in these countries likely contributes to these failed invasions.[36] Other populations in the UK,France, and theNetherlands have also similarly declined into extirpation.[44]
The species has in recent years expanded its range in Brazil, where a self-sustaining population occurs in the downtown area ofRio de Janeiro. Since this population occurs far from the bird's original range in Brazil – it was only found in the far south and southwest – it is most probably a consequence of escapees from thepet trade. In Rio de Janeiro, the bird can be easily seen at theAterro do Flamengo gardens – where it nests onpalm trees and feeds on their fruit; the Rio birds seem to favour nesting amid the leaves ofcoconut palm trees, and in the vicinity of the neighboring domestic flight terminal, theSantos Dumont Airport and in the gardens ofQuinta da Boa Vista, where communal nests roughly 1 m in diameter have been seen.[51] InSanta Catarina State, probable escapees have been reported on occasion for quite some time, and a feral population seems to have established itself inFlorianópolis early in the first decade of the 21st century when birds were observed feeding right next to the highway in the Rio Vermelho-Vargem Grande area.[15]
A breeding population on the island ofEleuthera was present from 1985 to the mid 1990s, but had disappeared by 1996, possibly due to the impact of hurricanes.[48]
In 1984, six monk parakeets were released from a pet store inDollard-des-Ormeaux, a suburb ofMontreal, Quebec; in the following few years, individual birds continued to be sighted in the Montreal area. In May 1987, monk parakeets were recorded breeding in Canada for the first time in the Montreal suburb ofLaval; this constitutes the northernmost continental breeding record for the species.[48]
The monk parakeet was first recorded in Mexico City between 1994–1995.[52] As of 2015, monk parakeets have been reported in 97 Mexican cities, and in all regions of the country.[52][53]
Following a 2008 ban on the capture and sale of native parrot species, the legal pet market pivoted to the sale of monk parakeets, which likely increased the number of escapees and subsequent feral populations.[52][53] Sometimes, the head and breast feathers of monk parakeets are dyed yellow to deceive uninformed buyers, mimicking the endangeredyellow-headed amazon.[citation needed]
Thousands of monk parakeets were imported to the United States between the 1960s and the 1980s as pets.[54] Many escaped or were intentionally released, and populations were allowed to proliferate. By the early 1970s,M. monachus was established in seven states, and by 1995, it had spread to eight more. InFlorida alone, estimates range from 150,000 to 500,000.[55]Austin,Dallas, andHouston, Texas, also have thriving monk parakeet populations.[56][57][58]
As one of the few temperate-zone parrots, the monk parakeet is able to survive cold climates (partly because they build communal nests about heat-producing electrical equipment atop utility poles), andcolonies exist as far north asNew York City,Long Island,Chicago, andPortland, Oregon.[23]Edgewater, New Jersey has had a colony since 1980.[59] This hardiness makes this species second only to therose-ringed parakeet among parrots as a successfulintroduced species.[citation needed] Their habit of building nests on warm electrical equipment is a serious fire risk.[60]
Pair of monk parakeets nesting under an air conditioner inBrooklyn, NY
In 2012, a pair of monk parakeets attempted nesting inWatervliet, New York, about 240 km (150 mi) north of New York City, nearAlbany, New York.[61] Prior to egg-laying, one bird was captured and the nest eventually was removed due to concerns that the nest built adjacent to an electrical transformer created a fire hazard.[62]
They have also found a home inBrooklyn, andQueens, New York, notably inGreen-Wood Cemetery, with some speculating they were accidentally released atJohn F. Kennedy Airport in the 1960s.[63] Several stories exist on the parakeets' introduction to the city, though their arrival is agreed to have been in the 1960s, following importation from Argentina. They thrive in Brooklyn, Queens, and western Long Island due to their preference for nesting in utility poles; populations have not expanded to Manhattan because of the borough's underground wiring.[64]
The population in Chicago is estimated to be at 1,000 birds, with healthy colonies located in several of the city's parks.[65] According to University of Chicago ornithologist Dr. Stephen Pruett-Jones, the population originated in the pet trade.[66] The first documented parrot nest in Chicago dates to 1973.[66] The species thrives despite harsh winters; attempts to remove them have been resisted byHyde Park residents, including MayorHarold Washington.[67] The birds are generally welcomed in the city, especially by bird watchers, and were the subject of a 2012 ornithological study.[65]
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Auckland has banned the sale, breeding, and distribution of monk parakeets since September 1, 2022.[68] However, pre-existing monk parakeets can be kept.[68] Monk parakeets, among some other parrots, have been cited to be pests that compete with native birds and damage native trees.[69]
Monk parakeets are highly intelligent, social birds. Those kept as pets routinely developvocabularies of scores of words and phrases.[70] Due to this early speaking ability, it is overtaking thecockatiel as the favourite bird to teach to talk.[citation needed] Another contributing factor to growing popularity is that this bird has a shorter lifespan and lower price[citation needed] thanAfrican grey parrots.
Because of monk parakeets' listing as an agricultural pest and invasive species, the U.S. states of California,[71] Colorado,[72] Georgia,[73] Kansas,[74] Kentucky,[75] Hawaii,[76] Maine,[77] New Jersey,[78] Pennsylvania,[79] Tennessee,[80] Wisconsin,[81] and Wyoming,[82] as well asWestern Australia[83] outlaw their sale and ownership. In Connecticut, ownership is permitted, but sale and breeding are prohibited. In New York and Virginia, one can own monk parakeets with banding and registration. In Rhode Island, an exotic animal possession permit is required for ownership.[84] In Ohio, owning one is legal if the bird's flight feathers are clipped or it is incapable of free flight.[85]
^Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2019)."Parrots, cockatoos".World Bird List Version 9.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved11 August 2019.
^Remsen, J. V., Jr., J. I. Areta, E. Bonaccorso, S. Claramunt, G. Del-Rio, A. Jaramillo, D. F. Lane, M. B. Robbins, F. G. Stiles, and K. J. Zimmer. Version 18 November 2024. A classification of the bird species of South America. American Ornithological Society.https://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.htm retrieved 26 November 2024
^Clements, J. F., P.C. Rasmussen, T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, T. A. Fredericks, J. A. Gerbracht, D. Lepage, A. Spencer, S. M. Billerman, B. L. Sullivan, M. Smith, and C. L. Wood. 2024. The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: v2024. Downloaded fromhttps://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/ retrieved October 23, 2024
^Navarro, Joaquin L.; Martella, Monica B.; Butcher, Enrique H. (1992). "Breeding season and productivity of monk parakeets in Cordoba, Argentina".The Wilson Bulletin.104 (3):413–424.JSTOR4163182.
^Senar, J.C.; Domenech, J.; Arroyo, L.; Torre, I.; Gordo, O. (2016). "An evaluation of monk parakeet damage to crops in the metropolitan area of Barcelona".Animal Biodiversity and Conservation.39 (1):141–145.doi:10.32800/abc.2016.39.0141.hdl:10261/133021.
^abAvery, Michael L.; Lindsay, James R. (November 2016)."Monk Parakeets"(PDF).U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service - Wildlife Services. Retrieved24 June 2024.
^abcdeCalzada Preston, Carlos E.; Pruett-Jones, Stephen; Eberhard, Jessica (2021). "Chapter 11: Monk parakeets as a globally naturalized species".Naturalized Parrots of the World. Princeton University Press. pp. 173–192.ISBN978-0-691-20441-3.
^Senar, Conroy & Montalvo (2021). In: S. Pruett-Jones (ed). Naturalized Parrots of the World: Distribution, Ecology, and Impacts of the World's Most Colorful Colonizers. Princeton: Princeton University Press
^Avery, Michael L. and Shiels, Aaron B., "Monk and Rose-Ringed Parakeets" (2018). USDA National Wildlife Research Center - Staff Publications. 2037. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc/2037
^Monteiro Pereira, José Felipe (2008).Aves e pássaros comuns do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro, AG: Technical Books Editora. p. 66.ISBN978-85-61368-00-5.
^"Parrot intercept a reminder to check import rules".Western Australia Department of Agriculture and Food. 8 October 2010. Archived fromthe original on 8 February 2013.[...] a monk parakeet, a prohibited species which is not permitted to be imported into or kept in WA.
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