The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage andethnic identity, descending from theProto-Mongols. Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as theMongolian language. The contiguous geographical area in which the Mongols primarily live is referred to as theMongol heartland, especially in discussions of the Mongols' history under theMongol Empire.
In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group ofMongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule ofGenghis Khan.[17]
Asia in 330–555, showing theRouran Khaganate and its neighbors, including theTuoba Wei and theTuyuhun, all of which were established by Proto-Mongols
The ethnogenesis of Mongolic peoples is largely linked with the expansion ofAncient Northeast Asians. The Mongolian pastoralist lifestyle may in part be derived from theWestern Steppe Herders, but without much geneflow between these two groups, suggesting cultural transmission.[20][21]
In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with theScythians, theMagog, and theTungusic peoples. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to theDonghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia andManchuria. The Donghu neighboured theXiongnu, whose identity is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they wereproto-Mongols, they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic andTurkic tribes.[22][full citation needed] It has been suggested that the language of theHuns was related to the Xiongnu.[23]
The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (Xianbei andWuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. theKhitan).[24][25]
The Donghu are mentioned bySima Qian as already existing inInner Mongolia north ofYan in 699–632 BCE along with theShanrong. Unofficial Chinese sources such asYi Zhou Shu ("Lost Book of Zhou")[26] and theClassic of Mountains and Seas[27] project the Donghu's activities back to theShang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). However, the Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shangfang (方 "border-region"; modern termfāngguó方國 "fang-countries") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period.[28]
The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States the poem "The Great Summons" (Chinese:大招; pinyin:Dà zhāo) in the anthologyVerses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women,[29] and possibly also the bookDiscourses of the States, which states that during the reign ofKing Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (nowQishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision ofChu since they were notvassals (诸侯) byenfeoffment and establishment. The Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscountXiong Yi.[30][31][b]
These early Xianbei came from the nearbyZhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in theOrdos Desert, where maternal DNA corresponds to the MongolDaur people and the TungusicEvenks. The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of theOrdos culture of Inner Mongolia and northernShaanxi) had trade relations with the Shang.Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quotedEastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion thatShanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei (鮮卑).[45][46] Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was theUpper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered.
After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu kingModu Chanyu, theXianbei andWuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation.Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-MongolicKumo Xi.[47] The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and theNew Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts fromEmperor Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak underTanshihuai (reigned 156–181) who expanded their vast but short livedconfederation.
Analysis of DNA extracted from the remains ofAvars found in Hungary has provided evidence that they originated in what is now Mongolia.[48]
Three prominent groups split from theXianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: theRouran (claimed by some to be thePannonian Avars), theKhitan people and theShiwei (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols).[49] Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as theMurong,Duan andTuoba. Their culture was nomadic, their religionshamanism orBuddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spokeMongolic languages, although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic.[50] The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings.
Geographically, theTuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran (Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the titlekhagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north ofKorea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of theFirst Turkic Khaganate in 555, theUyghur Khaganate in 745 and theYenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan,Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding theTatar confederation, who became part of theShiwei. The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from theKumo Xi (ofWuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them,Abaoji (872–926), established theLiao dynasty (916–1125).
The destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through variousmanaps (tribal leaders). The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. TheYenisei Kirghiz state was centered onKhakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership ofAbaoji, prevailed in several military campaigns against theTang dynasty's border guards, and theXi,Shiwei andJurchen nomadic groups.[51]
Remnants of the Liao dynasty led byYelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by theJurchen-ledJin dynasty and founded theQara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218,Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as theQutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and theDai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from theAdriatic Sea toIndonesianJava and fromJapan toPalestine. They simultaneously becamePadishahs ofPersia,Emperors of China, andGreat Khans of the Mongols, and one (Al-Adil Kitbugha) becameSultan of Egypt. The Mongolic peoples of theGolden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240.[52] By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all ofChina proper under the control of theYuan dynasty.[52]
... from Chinggis up high down to the common people, all are shaven in the stylepojiao. As with small boys in China, they leave three locks, one hanging from the crown of their heads. When it has grown some, they clip it; the strands lower on both sides they plait to hang down on the shoulders.[53]
— Zhao Gong
With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan'sHazaras,Azerbaijanis,Uzbeks,Karakalpaks,Tatars,Bashkirs,Turkmens,Uyghurs,Nogais,Kyrgyzs,Kazakhs,Caucasus peoples,Iranian peoples andMoghuls; linguistic and culturalPersianization also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into theYakuts after their migration to northern Siberia and about 30% ofYakut words have Mongol origin. However, remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern China and eventually assimilated. TheDongxiangs,Bonans,Yugur andMonguor people were invaded by theMing dynasty.
In 1434, Eastern MongolTaisun Khan's (1433–1452) Oirat prime minister Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killingAdai Khan inEjin. Togoon died in 1439 and his sonEsen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty. Esen later unified the Mongol tribes. The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in the 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in the 1449Tumu Crisis. Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title ofGreat Khan (1454–1455) of theGreat Yuan.[55]
The Khalkha emerged during the reign ofDayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of the sixtumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper.[56][57] He reunited the Mongols again. In 1550,Altan Khan led aTumed Mongol raid on Beijing. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern MongolianTümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this).
Eastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in the 17th century:Outer Mongolia (Khalkha),Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southernSiberia.
The last Mongol khagan wasLigdan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with theManchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from the Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only theChahars remained under his rule.
Map showingwars between Qing dynasty and Dzungar KhanateADzungar soldier calledAyusi from the high Qing era, byGiuseppe Castiglione, 1755The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing (that ruled China at the time) and Mongol Dzungar armies. The fall of theDzungar Khanate
The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against TibetanGelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while Ligdan supportedKagyu sect (Red Hat sect) ofTibetan Buddhism. Ligden died in 1634 on his way toTibet. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to theQing dynasty founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengisnoyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud.
Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western MongolDzungar Khanate's kingGaldan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj andZanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of the war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu.
In 1683Galdan's armies reachedTashkent and theSyr Darya and crushed two armies of theKazakhs. After that Galdan subjugated theBlack Khirgizs and ravaged theFergana Valley. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan tookTaraz, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to migrate westwards.[58] In 1687, he besieged theCity of Turkistan. Under the leadership ofAbul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729.[59]
The Khalkha eventually submitted toQing rule in 1691 byZanabazar's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkhade facto remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion ofOuter Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion ofKhövsgöl Province. Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war.
Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles,Tibetans,Kumul Khanate and someMoghulistan's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing.
There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephewTseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats.
The Buryats fought against Russianinvasion since the1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides ofLake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 theTreaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border ofManchuria north of the present line. The Russians retainedTrans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and theArgun River north of Mongolia. TheTreaty of Kyakhta (1727), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Russian and Qing empires until the mid-nineteenth century, and established theMongolia-Russia border.Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians.
The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat'sKhoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed.[60] By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. TheDzungar Khanate conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of theDzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758.[61] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus ongenocide,[62] has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."[63] The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755.
About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia toVolga River in 1607 and established theKalmyk Khanate.The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi,Kho Orluk. Russia was concerned about their attack but theKalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians.[citation needed] TheTsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition, the Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. TheRussian Orthodox church, by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000)[64] Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga to Dzungaria, through the territories of theirBashkir andKazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khanUbashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to theRusso-Turkish War (1768–74) to gain weapon before the migration. The EmpressCatherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate.[64][65][66][67][68] TheKyrgyzs attacked them nearBalkhash Lake. About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of theVolga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073)[64] of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Qing Empire).[69] The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but onlyGeorgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule.[70][71]
In the early 20th century, the late Qing government encouragedHan Chinese settlement of Mongolian lands under the name of "New Policies" or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders, especially those of Outer Mongolia, decided to seek Mongolian independence. After theXinhai Revolution, theMongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty.
With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern dayUvs,Khovd, andBayan-Ölgii provinces), but NorthernXinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing empire),Upper Mongolia,Barga andInner Mongolia came under control of the newly formedRepublic of China. On February 2, 1913, theBogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar,Nicholas II, referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, theUnited Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats,Upper Mongols,Barga Mongols, most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call ofMongolian reunification. In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining the Bogd Khan regime.[72] Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lostBarga, Dzungaria,Tuva, Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the1915 Treaty of Kyakhta.
In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 theWhite Russian army—led byBaron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatarcossacks—liberatedUlaanbaatar. Baron Ungern's purpose was to find allies to defeat theSoviet Union. The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. Finally, theNational Government of the Republic of China officiallyrecognized Mongolian independence in 1945. Although the Soviet Union supported the Mongolian People's Republic, Soviets carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and otherirredentistmovements.[citation needed]
On 10 April 1932, Mongoliansrevolted against the government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October.
The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression.Joseph Stalin's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During theStalinist repressions in Mongolia, almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders.[73][74] Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims.[74] Around the late 1930s theMongolian People's Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people, the population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of theGreat Purge in the Soviet Union.
TheManchukuo (1932–1945), puppet state of theEmpire of Japan (1868–1947) invadedBarga and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to theGreat Wall of China during theSoviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name:Liberation War of 1945). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. MarshalKhorloogiin Choibalsan called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but theSoviet Army blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way. It was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols (Huuchids, Bargas,Tümeds,about 800 Uzemchins)arrived. Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded theInner Mongolian Army in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. The nominally independent Inner MongolianMengjiang state (1936–1945) was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919.
The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945.
Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leaderMao Zedong requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support the Communists were unable to defeat Japan andKuomintang.[citation needed]
Mongolia and Soviets supported theUyghur andKazakhseparatist movement during the 1930s and 1940s. By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with theChinese Communist Party and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but the Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population.Basmachis or Turkic andTajik militants fought to liberateSoviet Central Asia until 1942.[citation needed]
The powerful states of Russia and China have committed many abuses against Mongols in their homeland, including war crimes and crimes against humanity, sometimes characterized ascultural genocide, with targets among the Mongol language, culture, tradition, history, religion, and ethnic identity.Peter the Great said: "The headwaters of theYenisei River must be Russian land".[75] The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations (World War I and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during a rebellion in 1927, and around one-third of the Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s.[76][77] 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s.[78] In 1919 the Buryats established a smalltheocratic Balagad state inKizhinginsky District of Russia and it fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
On 22 January 1922, Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during theRussian famine of 1921–22.[79] The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913,Nicholas II, tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from VolgTatars. But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are the Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population".[80] On 23 April 1923Joseph Stalin, communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful".[80] In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, thetundra andKarelia.The Kalmyks founded the sovereignRepublic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930.[80] The Oirats' state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykiannationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion.
Stalindeported all Kalmyks toSiberia in 1943 and around half of the (97,000–98,000) Kalmyks deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957.[81] The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching theKalmyk language during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. MarshalKhorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide.
On 3 October 2002, theMinistry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwanrecognizes Mongolia as an independent country,[82] although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia.[83] Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as theMongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission,[84] lie dormant.
Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate),[86] and the official provincial language of China'sInner Mongolia Autonomous Region, where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols.[87] Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate)[86] However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012.[88] However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities.[89] The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language.[90][91] Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols.[86][92] The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols.[93]
The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Linguists have traditionally proposed a link to theTungusic andTurkic language families, included alongside Mongolic in the broader group ofAltaic languages, though this remains controversial. Today the Mongolian peoples speak at least one of several Mongolic languages including Mongolian, Buryat, Oirat, Dongxiang, Tu and Bonan. Additionally, many Mongols speak either Russian or Mandarin Chinese as languages of inter-ethnic communication.
Buddhist temple inBuryatia, RussiaTimur of Mongolic origin himself had converted almost all theBorjigin leaders toIslam.
The original religion of the Mongolic peoples wasMongolian shamanism. The Xianbei came in contact withConfucianism andDaoism but eventually adopted Buddhism. However, the Xianbeis and some other people in Mongolia andRourans followed a form of shamanism.[94] In the 5th century the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed "State Teacher" of theRouran Khaganate and 3,000 families and some Rouran nobles became Buddhists. In 511 the RouranDouluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the Buddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Shamanism. The Tuoba had a "sacrificial castle" to the west of their capital where ceremonies to spirits took place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erected on top of this sacrificial castle. One ritual involved seven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairs with 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinkling the statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had their holiest shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and eight sons were kept in two temples. Mongolic peoples were also exposed toZoroastrianism,Manicheism,Nestorianism,Eastern Orthodoxy andIslam from the west.
The Mongolic peoples, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest shrine onMount Burkhan Khaldun where their ancestor Börte Chono (Blue Wolf) and Goo Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them.Genghis Khan usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this mountain before his campaigns. As a young man he had thanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed at the foot of the mountain sprinkling offerings and bowing nine times to the east with his belt around his neck and his hat held at his chest. Genghis Khan kept a close watch on the Mongolic supreme shaman Kokochu Teb who sometimes conflicted with his authority. Later,Tengrism, the imperial cult of Genghis Khan centered on theeight white gers and nine white banners inOrdos grew into a highly organized indigenous religion with scriptures in theMongolian script.[95] Indigenous moral precepts of the Mongolic peoples were enshrined in oral wisdom sayings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (blood-brother) system and ancient texts such as theChinggis-un Bilig (Wisdom of Genghis) andOyun Tulkhuur (Key of Intelligence). These moral precepts were expressed in poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, fidelity, help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, veneration of nature, veneration of the state and veneration of parents.
In 1254Möngke Khan organized a formal religious debate (in whichWilliam of Rubruck took part) between Christians, Muslims and Buddhists inKarakorum, a cosmopolitan city of many religions. The Mongolic Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity while still worshippingTengri. The Mongolic leaderAbaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13–16 to theSecond Council of Lyon (1274), which created a great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus' underwent a public baptism. A joint crusade was announced in line with theFranco-Mongol alliance but did not materialize because Pope Gregory X died in 1276.Yahballaha III (1245–1317) andRabban Bar Sauma (c. 1220–1294) were famous Mongolic Nestorian Christians. TheKeraites in central Mongolia were Christian. In Istanbul theChurch of Saint Mary of the Mongols stands as a reminder of theByzantine-Mongol alliance.
The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (underBerke andGhazan) and the Turkic languages (because of their commercial importance), although allegiance to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolic languages can be seen even in the 1330s. In 1521 the first Mughal emperor Babur took part in a military banner milk-sprinkling ceremony in the Chagatai Khanate where the Mongolian language was still used.Al-Adil Kitbugha (reigned 1294–1296), a Mongol Sultan of Egypt, and the half-MongolAn-Nasir Muhammad (reigned till 1341) built theMadrassa of Al-Nasir Muhammad in Cairo, Egypt. An-Nasir's Mongol mother was Ashlun bint Shaktay. The Mongolic nobility during the Yuan dynasty studied Confucianism, built Confucian temples (includingBeijing Confucius Temple) and translated Confucian works into Mongolic but mainly followed theSakya school of Tibetan Buddhism underPhags-pa Lama.
The general populace still practisedShamanism.Dongxiang andBonan people adopted Islam, as didMoghol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In the 1576 theGelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of Mongolia. The Red Hat school of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with the Gelug Yellow Hat school which was founded by the half-MongolJe Tsongkhapa (1357–1419). Shamanism was absorbed into thestate religion while being marginalized in its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art of the pre-modern period. Many Buddhist philosophical works lost in Tibet and elsewhere are preserved in older and purer form in Mongolian ancient texts (e.g. the MongolKanjur).Zanabazar (1635–1723),Zaya Pandita (1599–1662) andDanzanravjaa (1803–1856) are among the most famous Mongol holy men. The 4th Dalai LamaYonten Gyatso (1589–1617), a Mongol himself, is recognized as the only non-TibetanDalai Lama although the current 14th Dalai Lama is of MongolicMonguor extraction.[96] The name is a combination of the Mongolian word dalai meaning "ocean" and the Tibetan word (bla-ma) meaning "guru, teacher, mentor".[1] Many Buryats became Orthodox Christians due to the Russian expansion. During the socialist period religion was officially banned, although it was practiced in clandestine circles. Today, a sizable proportion of Mongolic peoples areatheist oragnostic. In the most recent census in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the population reported as being atheist, while the majority religion was Tibetan Buddhism, with 53%.[97] Having survived suppression by the Communists, Buddhism among the Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western Mongols is today primarily of theGelugpa school ofTibetan Buddhism. There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Gelugpa sect among the Mongols.[98]
Mongols grazing livestock, by Roy Chapman Andrews photographs in 1921
The traditional Mongol family was patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Wives were brought for each of the sons, while daughters were married off to other clans. Wife-taking clans stood in a relation of inferiority to wife-giving clans. Thus wife-giving clans were considered "elder" or "bigger" in relation to wife-taking clans, who were considered "younger" or "smaller".[99][100] This distinction, symbolized in terms of "elder" and "younger" or "bigger" and "smaller", was carried into the clan and family as well, and all members of a lineage were terminologically distinguished by generation and age, with senior superior to junior.
In the traditional Mongolian family, each son received a part of the family herd as he married, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The youngest son would remain in the parental tent caring for his parents, and after their death he would inherit the parental tent in addition to his own part of the herd. This inheritance system was mandated by law codes such as theYassa, created by Genghis Khan.[101] Likewise, each son inherited a part of the family's camping lands and pastures, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The eldest son inherited the farthest camping lands and pastures, and each son in turn inherited camping lands and pastures closer to the family tent until the youngest son inherited the camping lands and pastures immediately surrounding the family tent. Family units would often remain near each other and in close cooperation, though extended families would inevitably break up after a few generations. It is probable that the Yasa simply put into written law the principles of customary law.
It is apparent that in many cases, for example in family instructions, the yasa tacitly accepted the principles of customary law and avoided any interference with them. For example, Riasanovsky said that killing the man or the woman in case of adultery is a good illustration. Yasa permitted the institutions of polygamy and concubinage so characteristic of southerly nomadic peoples. Children born of concubines were legitimate. Seniority of children derived their status from their mother. Eldest son received more than the youngest after the death of father. But the latter inherited the household of the father. Children of concubines also received a share in the inheritance, in accordance with the instructions of their father (or with custom).
— Nilgün Dalkesen, Gender roles and women's status in Central Asia and Anatolia between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries[102]
After the family, the next largest social units were the subclan and clan. These units were derived from groups claiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor, ranked in order of seniority (the "conical clan"). By theChingissid era this ranking was symbolically expressed at formal feasts, in which tribal chieftains were seated and received particular portions of the slaughtered animal according to their status.[103] The lineage structure ofCentral Asia had three different modes. It was organized on the basis of genealogical distance, or the proximity of individuals to one another on a graph of kinship; generational distance, or the rank of generation in relation to a common ancestor, and birth order, the rank of brothers in relation to each another.[104] The paternal descent lines were collaterally ranked according to the birth of their founders, and were thus considered senior and junior to each other. Of the various collateral patrilines, the senior in order of descent from the founding ancestor, the line of eldest sons, was the most noble. In the steppe, no one had his exact equal; everyone found his place in a system of collaterally ranked lines of descent from a common ancestor.[105] It was according to this idiom of superiority and inferiority of lineages derived from birth order that legal claims to superior rank were couched.[106]
The Mongol kinship is one of a particular patrilineal type classed asOmaha, in which relatives are grouped together under separate terms that crosscut generations, age, and even sexual difference. Thus, one uses different terms for a man's father's sister's children, his sister's children, and his daughter's children. A further attribute is strict terminological differentiation of siblings according to seniority.
The anthropologist Herbert Harold Vreeland visited three Mongol communities in 1920 and published a highly detailed book with the results of his fieldwork,Mongol community and kinship structure.[107]
TheKhongirad was the main consort clan of the Borjigin and provided numerous Empresses and consorts. There were five minor non-Khonggirad inputs from the maternal side which passed on to the Dayan Khanid aristocracy of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. The first was theKeraite lineage added through Kublai Khan's motherSorghaghtani Beki which linked the Borjigin to the Nestorian Christian tribe ofCyriacus Buyruk Khan. The second was the TurkicKarluk lineage added through Toghon Temur Khan's mother Mailaiti which linked the Borjigin toBilge Kul Qadir Khan (840–893) of theKara-Khanid Khanate and ultimately to the Lion-Karluks as well as theAshina tribe of the 6th centuryGöktürks. The third was the Korean lineage added through Biligtü Khan's motherEmpress Gi (1315–370) which linked the Borjigin to theHaengju Gi clan and ultimately to KingJun of Gojeoson (262–184 BC) and possibly even further toKing Tang of Shang (1675–1646 BCE) throughJizi. The fourth was theEsen Taishi lineage added through Bayanmunkh Jonon's mother Tsetseg Khatan which linked the Borjigin more firmly to theOirats. The fifth was theAisin-Gioro lineage added during the Qing dynasty. To the west, Genghisid Khans received daughters of the Byzantine emperor in marriage, such as when the Byzantine princessMaria Palaiologina married to Abaqa Khan (1234–1282), while there were also connections with European royalty through Russia, where, for example, Prince Gleb (1237–1278) married Feodora Sartaqovna the daughter ofSartaq Khan, a great-grandson of Genghis Khan.[citation needed]
The Dayan Khanid aristocracy still held power during theBogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1919) and the Constitutional Monarchy period (1921–1924). They were accused of collaboration with the Japanese and executed in 1937 while their counterparts in Inner Mongolia were severely persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. Ancestral shrines of Genghis Khan were destroyed by the Red Guards during the 1960s and the Horse-Tail Banner of Genghis Khan disappeared.[citation needed]
TheBuryats are mainly concentrated in their homeland, theBuryat Republic, a federal subject of Russia. They are the major northern subgroup of the Mongols.[116] The Barga Mongols are mainly concentrated in Inner Mongolia, China, along with theBuryats andHamnigan. Some orientalists also include theSoyots in the Buryat sub-ethnic groups.[117][118][119]
The WesternOirats are mainly concentrated in Western Mongolia:
90,000 Upper Mongols (2010) —Qinghai region, China. The Khoshuts are the major subgroup of the Upper Mongols, along with theChoros,Khalkha andTorghuts.
In modern-day Mongolia, Mongols make up approximately 95% of the population, with the largest ethnic group beingKhalkha Mongols, followed by Buryats, both belonging to the Eastern Mongolian peoples. They are followed by Oirats, who belong to the Western Mongolian peoples.
Strong Mongol men at August games. Photo by Wm. Purdom, 1909
The 2010 census of the People's Republic of China counted more than 7 million people of various Mongolic groups. The 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million ethnic Mongols.[citation needed] The 2010 census counted roughly 5.8 million ethnic Mongols, 621,500 Dongxiangs, 289,565 Mongours, 132,000 Daurs, 20,074 Baoans, and 14,370 Yugurs.[citation needed] Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, followed byLiaoning. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two.
There were 669,972 Mongols in Liaoning in 2011, making up 11.52% of Mongols in China.[120] The closest Mongol area to the sea is the Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township (大堡蒙古族乡) inFengcheng, Liaoning. With 8,460 Mongols (37.4% of the township population)[citation needed] it is located 40 km (25 mi) from the North Korean border and 65 km (40 mi) fromKorea Bay of the Yellow Sea. Another contender for closest Mongol area to the sea would be Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township (二道湾子蒙古族乡) inJianchang County, Liaoning. With 5,011 Mongols (20.7% of the township population)[citation needed] it is located around 65 km (40 mi) from theBohai Sea.
Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are theDaur,Sogwo Arig,Monguor people,Dongxiangs,Bonans,Sichuan Mongols and eastern part of theYugur people. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol ethnicity, but are recognized as ethnic groups of their own. The Mongols lost their contact with the Mongours, Bonan, Dongxiangs, Yunnan Mongols since the fall of the Yuan dynasty. Mongolian scientists and journalists met with the Dongxiangs and Yunnan Mongols in the 2000s.[citation needed]
^Zhang Zhengming (2017) accepts the reading 鮮卑[32] (also seen in the early 19th century version published by Jinzhang bookstore (錦章図書局) in Shanghai[33]) as the ethnonym of the people who accompanied the Chu. However, 鮮卑 Xianbei is likely a scribal error for鮮牟 Xianmou (as in other versions like Sibu Congkan (四部叢刊),[34] orSiku Quanshu (四庫全書)[35]).Eastern Wu scholarWei Zhao states that the 鮮牟 Xianmou were anEastern Yi nation,[36][37] while the 鮮卑 Xianbei were ofMountain Rong origin.[38][39] The apparent scribal error results in contradicting statements, apparently by Wei Zhao, that the Xianbei were an Eastern Yi nation[40] and a people of Mountain Rong origin.[41]Huang Pilie (1763-1825) states that the reading 鮮卑 Xianbei was inauthentic and identifies the 鮮牟 Xianmou with根牟Genmou, an Eastern Yi nation conquered by theLu state in the 9th year of Duke Xuan of Lu's reign (600 BCE).[42][43][44]
^"Canada Census Profile 2021".Census Profile, 2021 Census. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. 7 May 2021.Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved3 January 2023.
^National University of Mongolia, School of Social Sciences, Department of History (1999). "2. Хүний үүсэл, Монголчуудын үүсэл гарвал" [2. Origins of Humanity; Origins of the Mongols]. Монгол улсын түүх [History of Mongolia] (in Mongolian). Admon. pp. 67–69.
^Сүхбаатар, Гүнжийн (1992). "Монгол Нирун улс" [Mongol Nirun (Rouran) state].Монголын эртний түүх судлал, III боть [Historiography of Ancient Mongolia, Volume III] (in Mongolian). Vol. 3. pp. 330–550.
^Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1983). "The Chinese and Their Neighbors in Prehistoric and Early Historic China," inThe Origins of Chinese Civilization. University of California Press, pp. 411–466.
^Frances Wood,The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia, p. 48
^For a list of known fang-countries see Anderson, Matthew Mccutchen. (2015). "Change and Standardization in Anyang: Writing and Culture in Bronze Age China".Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 1589.https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/1589Archived 2022-05-24 at theWayback Machine pp. 96–98
^Chu Ci,"Da Zhao"Archived 2022-03-18 at theWayback Machine. quote: "小腰秀頸，若鮮卑只。". translation (by Gopal Sukhu, 2017): "And she is as small-waisted and long-necked [a]s aXianbei woman."
^Zhang, Zhengming. (2019) A History Of Chu (Volume 1) Honolulu: Enrich Professional Publishing. p. 42-46
^Zhang, Zhengming. (2019) A History Of Chu (Volume 1) Honolulu: Enrich Professional Publishing.p. 45Archived 2023-10-03 at theWayback Machine. quote: "and tending the shrine flames together with theXianbei 鮮卑 clan leader."
^Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Jinzhang Bookstore's version, vol. 2p. 36Archived 2023-11-09 at theWayback Machine Waseda University Library's copy
^Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 3p. 140Archived 2023-06-13 at theWayback Machine of 154
^Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Siku Quanshu version, vol. 3-7,p. 42Archived 2023-06-13 at theWayback Machine of 148
^Guoyu, "Jinyu 8", explained by Wei Zhao, 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 3p. 140Archived 2023-06-13 at theWayback Machine of 154. quote: "鮮牟東夷國"
^Guoyu, "Jinyu 8", explained by Wei Zhao. Siku Quanshu version, vol. 3-7,p. 43Archived 2023-06-13 at theWayback Machine of 148. quote: "鮮牟東夷國"
^Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu", 1st edition Sibu Congkan version, vol. 2,p. 90Archived 2023-06-13 at theWayback Machine of 160, quote: "山戎今之鮮卑"
^Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu". Siku Quanshu version, vol. 6-8,p. 28Archived 2023-06-13 at theWayback Machine of 111, quote: "山戎今之鮮卑"
^Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Jinyu 8". Jinzhang Bookstore's version, vol. 2p. 36Archived 2023-11-09 at theWayback Machine. quote: "鮮卑東夷國". Waseda University Library's copy
^Guoyu, explained by Wei Zhao, "Qiyu". Jinzhang Bookstore's version,p. 42Archived 2023-11-16 at theWayback Machine. quote: "山戎今之鮮卑". Waseda University Library's copy
^ChunqiuZuo Zhuan "Duke Xuan's 9th year"jingArchived 2023-04-05 at theWayback Machine; quote:（ 秋，取根牟。）; rough translation: "In autumn, [Lu] conquered Genmou."zhuan ; quote:（秋，取根牟，言易也。）; rough translation: "In autumn, [Lu] conquered Genmou. It's said that was easy."
^Xu Yuangao & Wang Shumin (2002). 國語集解 (Discourses of the States - Collected Explanations) Publisher:Zhonghua Book Company. p. 430. quote:（ 黃丕烈曰：「鮮牟，一本作『鮮卑』，非。『鮮牟』即宣九年之『根牟』也，…… 。」）; rough translation: "Huang Pilie said: 'Xianmou (鮮牟), in one copy it is written as Xianbei (鮮卑), which is inauthentic. The Xianmou (鮮牟) are the Genmou (根牟) in (Duke) Xuan's 9th year. [...].'"
^"Mongolian office to ride into Taipei by end of the year".Taipei Times. 2002-10-11. Archived fromthe original on 2009-02-10. Retrieved2009-05-28.In October 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted for independence, gaining the recognition of many countries, including the Republic of China. (...) Due to a souring of relations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, however, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia, reclaiming it as ROC territory.
^abcJanhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). "1".Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 11.
^Tsung, Linda (October 27, 2014). "3".Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 59.
^Tsung, Linda (October 27, 2014). "3".Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China. Bloomsbury Academic.
^Iredale, Robyn; Bilik, Naran; Fei, Guo (August 2, 2003). "4".China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies. p. 84.
^Janhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). "1".Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 16.
^Otsuka, Hitomi (30 Nov 2012). "6".More Morphologies: Contributions to the Festival of Languages, Bremen, 17 Sep to 7 Oct, 2009. p. 99.
^Iredale, Robyn (August 2, 2003). "3".China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies. Routledge. pp. 56,64–67.
^Janhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). "1".Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 11.Iredale, Robyn; Bilik, Naran; Fei, Guo (August 2, 2003). "3".China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies. p. 61.
^Shimamura, Ippei (2014).The Roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats. Kanagawa, Japan: Shumpusha.ISBN978-4-86110-397-1.
^Natalia Zhukovskaia (2005)."Бурятские шаманки на международной конференции (тункинский опыт, июль 2004 г.) // Женщина и возрождение шаманизма.". Москва: Российская академия наук. Институт этнологии и антропологии имени Н. Н. Миклухо-Маклая. Page 129. In Russian:"... здесь сформировался тот этнический состав населения, который относительно стабильно сохраняется до сегодняшнего дня - булагаты, хонгодоры, сойоты, которые (одни раньше, другие позже) вошли как субэтносы в состав бурят."
^Nanzatov, B. Z. (2003)."Племенной состав бурят в XIX веке." [Buryat tribe composition in the 19th century].Народы и культуры Сибири. Взаимодействие как фактор формирования и модернизации (in Russian). Irkutsk. pp. 15–27.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Балдаев С. П. (1970).Родословные легенды и предания бурят. Ч. 1 (in Russian). Улан-Удэ. p. 166.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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