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| Mongolian Revolution of 1990 | |||
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| Part of therevolutions of 1989 | |||
 Hunger strikers near theGovernment Palace inUlaanbaatar, 1990 | |||
| Date | 10 December 1989 – 9 March 1990 (2 months, 3 weeks and 6 days) | ||
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TheMongolian Revolution of 1990, known inMongolia as the1990 Democratic Revolution,[a] was apeacefuldemocratic revolution that led to the country's transition to amulti-party system.[1] It was inspired by theeconomic reforms of theSoviet Union in the late 1980s and was one of the manyrevolutions of 1989. It was led mostly by young demonstrators who rallied atSükhbaatar Square, in the capital city,Ulaanbaatar. The main organisers of the demonstrations includedSanjaasürengiin Zorig,Erdeniin Bat-Üül,Davaadorjiin Ganbold,Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, andBat-Erdeniin Batbayar.
Althoughone-party rule in Mongolia officially ended with the adoption of anew constitution on 12 February 1992, theMongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) remained in power until it was voted out in favour of theDemocratic Union Coalition in the1996 parliamentary election. However, the country had already begun transitioning to amarket economy by 1991, with the creation of thestock market and the Government Privatization Committee.[2]
Mongolia was previously avassal state to theQing dynasty. Starting with thepro-independence movements in 1911 against the colonisation policy of the lateQing dynasty, the country claimed its independence in 1921 with the help of theSoviet Union, afterWhite Russian andChinese forces had been expelled. However, the country was highly influenced by theSoviet Union, and would eventually become aone-party,socialist state by 1924. TheMongolian People's Party that played a crucial role in achieving independence from theQing Dynasty would be renamed to the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) due to pressure from theSoviet Union.[3]
Over the following decades, Mongolia would become highly aligned with theSoviet Union and considered its "satellite state".[4][5] Various extreme measures were taken to establish the Mongolian communist state including the persecution andpurges of democratic leaders,lamas, andintellectuals.[6] The massive transformations in the country included a complete ban ofreligious practices and the destruction of 700monasteries, but also the construction of Mongolia's largest cities, the establishment of major industries, and the education of the masses.[7][8] TheMongolian People's Republic was led byMarshalKhorloogiin Choibalsan from 1939 to 1952, followed byYumjaagiin Tsedenbal who served as the leader of the state from 1952 to 1984, both of whom were regarded to be highly agreeable with theSoviet Union's increasing involvement in Mongolia.[9][10]
After the resignation ofYumjaagiin Tsedenbal in 1984, inspired byMikhail Gorbachev's reforms in the Soviet Union, the new leadership underJambyn Batmönkh implemented economic reforms but failed to appeal to those who, in late 1989, wanted broader changes.[11]
The revolution of 1990 was primarily driven by young people who wanted a change in the country. One of the most critical groups that pushed for change was theMongolian Democratic Union (MDU), a group of intellectuals influenced by revolutions in Eastern Europe.[12] Concepts such asglasnost, freedom of speech and economic liberties that the intellectuals were exposed to abroad inspired the initial discussions that would lead to the revolution.[13][14] The Mongolian Democratic Union was formed by the end of 1989. Many now-prominent figures such asTsakhiagiin Elbegdorj along with Dari-Sukhbaatar and Chimediin Enkhee were members of the union and would eventually come be known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolia's Democratic Revolution.[15][16][17] Members of the Union and anyone associated with the movement had to be secretive to ensure their security. Members that were known to be associated with the organisation were laid off on the basis of "engaging in conduct inconsistent with communist and socialist ideology".[15]
On the morning of 10 December 1989, the first open pro-democracy public demonstration occurred in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar where the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU) was announced.[18][19]
The protesters demanded a multi-party system, free elections with universal suffrage, the replacement of a centrally planned economy with a market economy, private property, re-organization of the government, and protection of human rights, particularly freedom of religion.[20] The protesters injected a nationalist element into the protests by using traditionalMongolian script—which most Mongolians could not read—as a symbolic repudiation of the political system that had imposed theMongolian Cyrillic alphabet.
Demonstrations drastically increased by late December when the news ofGarry Kasparov's interview withPlayboy broke. The interview suggested that the Soviet Union might sell Mongolia to China in order to raise money.[11][21] On 2 January 1990, the MDU began distributing leaflets calling for a democratic revolution.[22]
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On 14 January 1990, the protesters, having grown from three hundred to a few thousand, met on the square in front of the Lenin Museum. A demonstration onSükhbaatar Square on 21 January (in weather of −30°C) followed. Protesters carried banners alluding toChinggis Khaan, rehabilitating a figure which the socialist school curriculums had outright banned.[23] They also celebrated Daramyn Tömör-Ochir, a politician who was purged from the MPRP in 1962 as part of the MPRP's efforts to suppress the commemoration of the 800th anniversary of Genghis Khan's birth. The protestors carried a modifiedFlag of Mongolia, which distinctly lacked the star representing the country's socialist beliefs; this flag would eventually become the official flag after the revolution.[11]
In subsequent months, activists continued to organise demonstrations, rallies, protests, andhunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes.[24] Activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside, and the MDU's activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country.[25][26][27] The demonstrations expanded to thousands in the capital city,Ulaanbaatar, and to other major cities, such asErdenet andDarkhan, as well as toprovincial centers likeMörön. Large-scale demonstrations were followed by the creation of the first opposition parties of Mongolia.
After numerous demonstrations of thousands in both the capital city and provincial centers, on 4 March 1990, the MDU and three other reform organisations held a joint outdoor mass meeting, inviting the government to attend. The government sent no representative to what became a demonstration of over 100,000 people demanding democratic change.[22] On 7 March 1990, inSükhbaatar Square, the MDU initially started a hunger strike of ten, urging the current government to resign. The hunger strike escalated as thousands gathered to join the strike, declaring that the strike would not end until the resignation of the current government.[28]
The situation was tense. Behind the scenes within thePolitburo, there were serious discussions about cracking down on the protestors. Eventually, a decree was written, awaiting approval from theChairman of the MPRP,Jambyn Batmönkh, that would effectively repress the protests. Batmönkh outwardly opposed the decree, maintaining that they must "under no circumstances resort to using violence" (Mongolian:Хэрхэвч Хүч хэрэглэж болохгүй). Those who were present there later recalled that Batmönkh said, "I will never sign this. We few Mongols have not yet come to the point that we will make each other's noses bleed," smacked the table, and left the room."[29] On 9 March[30] or 15 March 1990,[31] the Politburo was replaced, and on 21 March 1990, Batmönkh announced his resignation.[30]
Elbegdorj announced the news of the Politburo resignation to the hunger strikers and to people who had gathered onSükhbaatar Square at 10:00 pm.[15][when?] The hunger strike stopped. The MPRP Politburo's resignation paved the way for the firstmulti-party elections in Mongolia.[24] The new government announced Mongolia's firstfree parliamentary elections, which were to be held in July.
Following the Politburo's resignation, Mongolia's first free, multi-party elections for abicameral parliament were held on29 June 1990.[22][32] In the 1990 parliamentary elections, parties ran for 430 seats in thePeople's Great Khural. Opposition parties were not able to nominate enough candidates. The oppositionMongolian Democratic Party nominated 346 candidates for the 430 seats in the People's Great Khural (upper house). TheMongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won 357 seats in the People's Great Khural and 31 out of 53 seats in the newly establishedLittle Khural as well.[33] The MPRP enjoyed a strong position in the countryside.
Nonetheless, the new MPRP government underDashiin Byambasüren shared power with the opposition parties, and implemented constitutional and economic reforms. As these reforms coincided with thedissolution of the Soviet Union, which had until 1990 provided significant economic aid to Mongolia's state budget, the country did experience harsh economic problems: enterprises closed down, inflation rose, and basic food had to berationed for a time. Foreign trade broke down, economic and technical aid from the formersocialist countries ended, anddomestic economy was struggling withprivatisation. A thriving black market arose in Ulaanbaatar by 1988 to accommodate the needs of the populace.[22]
ThePeople's Great Khural (upper house) first met on 3 September 1990 and elected apresident (MPRP),vice-president (MSDP),prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Little Khural (lower house) according toproportional representation. The vice-president was also chairman of the Little Khural. In November 1991, the People's Great Khural began discussion on anew constitution, which entered into force on 12 February 1992. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating aunicameral legislature, theState Great Khural.
The constitution was amended in 1992. The first election major win for the Democratic opposition was thepresidential election of 1993, when the nominee of theMongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP) and theMongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP),incumbentPunsalmaagiin Ochirbat, won by 59.89% of the total vote.[34]
TheDemocratic Union Coalition, co-led by MNDP chairmanTsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, for the first time succeeded in winningparliamentary majority in the1996 parliamentary elections.[35] TheDemocratic Party has been part of three coalition governments with the former ruling MPRP in 2004–2008 and in 2008–2012 respectively; and with theCivil Will-Green Party and new MPRP from 2012 and on.
In the2009 Mongolian presidential election, theDemocratic Party candidate,Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj — one of the democratic revolution leaders — defeated the MPRP candidate, incumbent presidentNambaryn Enkhbayar.[36] Following this victory, in the2012 parliamentary elections, the Democratic Party won again.[37] In the 2012 local elections of the capital city, provinces and districts, the Democratic Party won for the first time in the country's history.[38] In the2013 Mongolian presidential election, theDemocratic Party candidate, incumbent PresidentTsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, won.[39] Thus, the Democratic Party that stemmed from the Democratic Union — that is, the pro-democracy activists — was in control of Mongolia's presidency, parliament and government between 2013 and 2016, when it was defeated at the parliamentary elections.[37][39]
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{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)Mongolia-watchers in Beijing said that ... the democracy movement is rooted more in nationalism than in dissent .... 'Watching it unfold, you get the feeling this is more a pro-nationalist and pro-Mongolian movement than it is anti-party or anti-government,' said a diplomat who left Ulan Bator on Monday.