Mongolia[b] is alandlocked country inEast Asia, bordered byRussia to the north andChina to the south. It covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world'smost sparsely populated sovereign state. Mongolia is the world's largest landlocked country that does not border aclosed sea, and much of its area is covered by grassysteppe, with mountains to the north and west and theGobi Desert to the south.Ulaanbaatar, the capital andlargest city, is home to roughly half of the country's population.
The name Mongolia means the "Land of the Mongols" in Latin. The Mongolian word"Mongol" (монгол) is of uncertain etymology. Sükhbataar (1992) and de la Vaissière (2021) proposed it being a derivation fromMugulü, the 4th-century founder of theRouran Khaganate,[13] first attested as the 'Mungu',[14] (Chinese:蒙兀,Modern ChineseMěngwù,Middle ChineseMuwngu),[15] a branch of theShiwei in an 8th-centuryTang dynasty list of northern tribes, presumably related to theLiao-eraMungku[14] (Chinese:蒙古,Modern ChineseMěnggǔ,Middle ChineseMuwngkuX).[16]
TheKhoit Tsenkher Cave[20] inKhovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) ofmammoths,lynx,bactrian camels, andostriches, earning it the nickname "theLascaux of Mongolia". TheVenus figurines of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia.Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became the dominant culture. Theethnogenesis ofMongolic peoples is largely linked with the expansion ofAncient Northeast Asians. The Mongolian pastoralist lifestyle may in part be derived from theWestern Steppe Herders, but without much geneflow between these two groups, suggesting cultural transmission.[21][22]
Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze AgeAfanasevo culture (3500–2500 BC);[23] thisIndo-European culture was active to theKhangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.[24] Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the laterOkunev culture (2nd millennium BC),Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) andKarasuk culture (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron AgeXiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age includedeer stones, keregsurkurgans,square slab tombs, and rock paintings.
Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The population during theCopper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.[20] Tocharians (Yuezhi) andScythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it was found inthe Altai, Mongolia.[25] As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of theEurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, andDonghu) into China during theShang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) andZhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) presaged the age ofnomadic empires.
Early states
7th-century artifacts found 180 km (112 mi) from Ulaanbaatar
Since the prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of theKhan, theKurultai (Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army (Keshig) and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, theXiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together byModu Shanyu to form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to theQin dynasty, forcing the latter to construct theGreat Wall of China. It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during MarshalMeng Tian's tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the MongolicXianbei empire (93–234 AD), which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), ofXianbei provenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by theGöktürks (555–745), an even larger empire.
The Göktürks laid siege toPanticapaeum, present-dayKerch, in 576. They were succeeded by theUyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The MongolicKhitans, descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao dynasty (907–1125), after which theKhamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence.
Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription ofBilge Khagan (684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the time of theKhagans:
In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees genuflect them. In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China), Tibet (Tibetan Empire),Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire),Kirgiz, Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars,Khitans,Tatabis came to the funerals. So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans.[26]
In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes betweenManchuria and theAltai Mountains. In 1206, he took the titleGenghis Khan, and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming theMongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-dayPoland in the west toKorea in the east, and from parts ofSiberia in the north to theGulf of Oman andVietnam in the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),[27] (22% of Earth's total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about a quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence ofPax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height.[28][29]
After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms orKhanates. These eventually became quasi-independent after theToluid Civil War (1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power followingMöngke Khan's death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and most of modern-day China, became known as the Yuan dynasty underKublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Yuan court fled to the north, thus becoming theNorthern Yuan dynasty. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capitalKarakorum and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols underAyushridar and his generalKöke Temür.[30]
After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers fromChina proper, the Mongols continued to rule their homeland, known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty. With the division of the Mongol tribes, it was subsequently also known as "The Forty and the Four" (Döčin dörben) among them.[31] The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-GenghisidOirats, as well as by several Ming invasions (such as thefive expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor).
Genghis Khan, the first Mongol Emperor
In the early 16th century,Dayan Khan and hiskhatunMandukhai reunited all Mongol groups under the Genghisids. In the mid-16th century,Altan Khan of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He foundedHohhot in 1557. After he met with theDalai Lama in 1578, he ordered the introduction ofTibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred.) Abtai Khan of theKhalkha converted to Buddhism and founded theErdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandsonZanabazar became the firstJebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of theiryurt. Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power.[32]
The last Khagan of Mongols wasLigden Khan in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with theManchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636, most of theInner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded theQing dynasty. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After severalDzungar–Qing Wars, theDzungars (western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and 1758.[33]
Altan Khan (1507–1582) founded the city of Hohhot, helped introduce Buddhism and originated the title ofDalai Lama.
Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or moreDzungar were killed by a combination of disease and warfare.[34] Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. TheJebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immensede facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to theVolga steppes in Russia became known asKalmyks.
The main trade route during this period was theTea Road through Siberia; it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families.
Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures.Ambans, Manchu "high officials", were installed inKhüree,Uliastai, andKhovd, and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behavior of Mongolia's nobility, together withusurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai khutuktu), in Outer Mongolia.
With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under theBogd Khaan declared its independence. However, the newly establishedRepublic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory.Yuan Shikai, thePresident of the Republic of China, considered the new republic to be thesuccessor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said thatboth Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during the Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid.[35]
The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the formerOuter Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after theOctober Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlordXu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As a result of theRussian Civil War, theWhite Russian Lieutenant GeneralBaron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces inNiislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support.
To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern,Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took theMongolian part ofKyakhta from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921, and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921.[36] As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.
Mongolian People's Republic
In 1924, after theBogd Khaan died oflaryngeal cancer[37] or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,[38] the country'spolitical system was changed. TheMongolian People's Republic was established. In 1928,Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) included many withPan-Mongolist ideals. However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the following period.
Khorloogiin Choibalsan led Mongolia during the Stalinist era, and presided over an environment of intense political persecution
Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock, began the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried outStalinist purges, which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia and by the end of the 1930s almost all had been looted or razed.[39]
The February 1945Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in thePacific War. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence.The referendum took place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.[43]
After the establishment of thePeople's Republic of China, both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However, theRepublic of China used itsSecurity Council veto in 1955, to stop the admission of theMongolian People's Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time theRepublic of China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission ofMauritania (and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961.[44][45][46] (seeChina and the United Nations)
On 26 January 1952,Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after the death of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years.[47] While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him withJambyn Batmönkh.
Anew constitution was introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name.[49] Thetransition to a market economy was often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages.[50] The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in theAsia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD),Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in theShanghai Cooperation Organisation.[51]
The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by theGobi Desert, while the northern and western portions are mountainous
At 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's18th-largest country.[52] It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes41° and52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes87° and120°E. As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Saskatoon (Canada), while the southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata in India, while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao and Hangzhou in China, as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan, nearly making aquadripoint.
The geography of Mongolia is varied, with theGobi Desert to the south and cold, mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of theMongolian-Manchurian grassland, with forested areas accounting for 11.2% of the total land area.[53] The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia is theKhüiten Peak in theTavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of theUvs Lake, shared withTuva Republic in Russia, is a naturalWorld Heritage Site.
Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" (Mongolian: "Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a year.[54][55][56][57]
Köppen climate classification zones in Mongolia
Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F).[58] A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects oftemperature inversion (temperature increases with altitude).
In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of theSiberian Anticyclone. The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province (Ulaangom), western Khovsgol (Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan (Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province (Dalanzadgad,Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province (Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province (Arvaikheer) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable. TheKhangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C (−22 °F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F).[59][60]
The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known aszud. It results in large proportions of the country's livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral population. The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the world's coldest capital city.[58] Mongolia is high, cold and windy.[61] It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls.[61] The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure.[61] Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to 14 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually.[61] The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests ofBulgan Province near the border with Russia and the lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in) occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990).[62] The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or 22.5 in).
TheGobi Desert,Ömnögovi Province.Desertification is a key issue in Mongolia.There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and environmental wellness. These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors, but increasingly because of human actions. One of these issues isclimate change, which will be responsible for an increase indesertification, natural disasters, andland degradation.[63] Another isdeforestation, which is expanding due to human activity, pests, disease, and fires. Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification, a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsibleland use. Additionally, more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction. Moreover, especially in population centers, Mongolians deal withair andwater pollution caused byindustrialization.
The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to supportmarmots but with enough to support camels.[61] Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape.[61]
Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not evenBactrian camels can survive.[61] The arid conditions in the Gobi are attributed to therain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago, Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils.Tadpole shrimps are still found in the Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including theOnon andKherlen rivers andLake Buir form part of theAmur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish (cambaroides dauricus) and Daurian pearl oyster (dahurinaia dahurica) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn (exopalaemon modestus) in Lake Buir.
Ulaanbaatar is the capital and largest city of Mongolia
Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by theU.S. Census Bureau[64][failed verification] to be 3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world. But theU.S. Department of StateBureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations[65] instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations.United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division[66] estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than the U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).[66] About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy.[citation needed]
The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500.[67] Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline oftotal fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations:[66] in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005.[68] The decline ended and in 2005–2010, the fertility value increased to 2.8 in 2013 and stabilised afterwards at a rate of about 2.5-2.6 children per woman around 2020.[69]
The Mongols are moderately homogeneous;[70] ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist ofKhalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. TheKhalkha make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats,Buryats and others.Turkic peoples (Kazakhs andTuvans) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.[71]
Languages
Public Library and Museum in Mörön,Khövsgöl province showing signage in Mongolian (Mongolian Script and Cyrillic) and English
Mongolia's official andnational language isMongolian. A member of theMongolic language family, the standard dialect isKhalkha Mongol. It coexists with various other, largely mutually intelligible varieties of Mongolic such asOirat,Buryat, andKhamnigan. Several dialects have been morphing to become more like the central Khalkha dialect in recent years.[72] Most speakers of these dialects are located in the western part of the country, namelyBayan-Ölgii,Uvs, andKhovd.Kazakh, aTurkic language, is the majority language in Bayan-Ölgii, whileTuvan is another Turkic language spoken inKhövsgöl.Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community.
Today, Mongolian is mainly written using theCyrillic alphabet, introduced during the 1940s. Since the1990 revolution there has been a minor revival of the historicMongolian script, which is still the official script used byMongols in neighboringInner Mongolia. Although Mongolian script has officially been declared thenational script,[73] and is taught from the sixth grade onward at schools,[74] it remains mostly confined to ceremonial usage in daily life.[72] In 2025, Mongolia began using both the Cyrillic and traditional Mongolian scripts for legal papers and official documents.[75]
This map shows the boundary of the 13th-centuryMongol Empire compared to today'sMongols. The red area shows where the majority ofMongolian speakers reside today
Since 1990, English has quickly supplanted Russian as the most popular foreign language in Mongolia.[76][72][77] In thecommunist era, Russian was a vital language for mobility and professional communication, with a large number of students studying in theSoviet Union as well as a large number of Soviet professionals and soldiers located within Mongolia.[72] Since then, Mongolia's education system has reoriented away from the Soviet Union to the West, and English has become the dominant foreign language, aided by liberalized media, international aid agencies, the rise of private education and tutoring, as well as official government policy. In the 2014–2015 academic year, 59% of the overall student population studied English at public secondary schools.[72] In 2023, English was declared the "first foreign language", and to be taught from the third grade.[78]
According to the 2010 National Census, among Mongolians aged 15 and above, 53% wereBuddhists, while 39% werenon-religious.
Mongolian shamanism has been widely practiced throughout the history of what is now Mongolia, with similar beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia. They gradually gave way toTibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western Mongolia, some Mongols, and other Turkic peoples in the country traditionally adhere toIslam.
Throughout much of the 20th century, thecommunist government repressed religious practices. It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been theKhan of the country).[81] In the late 1930s, the regime, then led byKhorloogiin Choibalsan, closed almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries andkilled at least 30,000 people, of whom 18,000 were lamas.[82] The number ofBuddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990.[81]
Thefall of communism in 1991 restored public religious practice.Tibetan Buddhism, which had been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose to become the most widely practised religion in Mongolia. The highest-ranking lama of Buddhism in Mongolia, has been vacant since the 9th Jebtsundamba's passing in 2012[83] and the search for the next Jebtsundamba Khutuktu is being complicated by Beijing's desire to assert control over Tibetan Buddhism.[83]
The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions to spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary groupBarnabas Fund, the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008[update]. In May 2013,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) held a cultural program to celebrate twenty years of LDS Church history in Mongolia, with 10,900 members, and 16 church buildings in the country.[84] There are some 1,000 Catholics in Mongolia and, in 2003, a missionary from thePhilippines was named Mongolia's firstCatholic bishop.[85] In 2017Seventh-day Adventists reported 2,700 members in six churches up from zero members in 1991.[86]
Mongolia is asemi-presidential representative democratic republic with a directly electedPresident.[3][87][88] The people also elect the deputies in the national assembly, theState Great Khural. The president appoints the prime minister, and nominates the cabinet on the proposal of the prime minister. Theconstitution of Mongolia guarantees a number of freedoms, including fullfreedom of expression andreligion. Mongolia amended its constitution most lately in 2019 transferring some powers from the president to the prime minister.[89] On May 31, 2023, Mongolia's parliament approved a constitutional amendment that increased the number of seats from 76 to 126 and changed the electoral system re-introducing proportional party voting.[90]
The People's Party – known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1924 and 2010 – formed the government from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two other coalitions. The party initiated two changes of government from 2004 prior to losing power in the 2012 election. The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal partner with the People's Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall majority;[92] however, as theDemocratic Party won the largest number of seats,[93] its leader,Norovyn Altankhuyag, was appointedprime minister on 10 August 2012.[94] In 2014, he was replaced byChimediin Saikhanbileg. TheMPP won a landslide victory in the2016 elections and the nextprime minister wasMPP'sUkhnaagiin Khürelsükh. In June 2020, MPP won a landslide victory in theelection. It took 62 seats and the main opposition DP, 11 of the 76 seats. Before the elections the ruling party had redrawn the electoral map in a way that was beneficial for MPP.[95]In January 2021, Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh resigned after protests over the treatment of a coronavirus patient.[96] On 27 January 2021,Luvsannamsrai Oyun-Erdene of MPP became new prime minister. He represents a younger generation of leaders that had studied abroad.[97]
ThePresident of Mongolia is able to veto the laws made by parliament, appoint judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors. The parliament can override that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president; the candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office. The president must also suspend their party membership. After defeating incumbentNambaryn Enkhbayar,Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-time former prime minister and member of theDemocratic Party, was elected as president on 24 May 2009 and inaugurated on 18 June that year.[98] The rulingMongolian People's Revolutionary Party (2010) (MPRP) nominatedBatbold Sukhbaatar as new Prime Minister in October 2009.[99] Elbegdorj was re-elected on 26 June 2013 and was inaugurated on 10 July 2013 for his second term as president.[100] In June 2017, oppositionDemocratic Party candidateKhaltmaagiin Battulga won the presidentialelection.[101] He was inaugurated on 10 July 2017.[102]
Mongolia uses aunicamerallegislature, the State Great Khural, with 76 seats, which is chaired by the Speaker of the House. Its members are directly elected, every four years, by popular vote.[3] As per 2023 constitutional amendment the parliament increased the number of seats from 76 to 126.[104]
Mongolia's foreign relations traditionally focus on its two large neighbors, Russia and China.[105] Mongolia is economically dependent on these countries: China is Mongolia's largest export partner at a 78% share, far above the other top countries (Switzerland at 15%; Singapore 3%). Mongolia receives 36% of imports from China and 29% from Russia.[106] Mongolia is also pursuing a trilateral partnership with China and Russia through thePower of Siberia 2 natural gas pipeline, with a contract to be signed in the "near future" according to Russian Deputy Prime Minister Alexander Novak.[107][108] Due to China's status as Mongolia's most important trading partner, Mongolia has been trying to stay out of the current U.S.-China confrontation.[109]
It has begun seeking positive relations with a wider range of other countries especially in cultural and economic matters, focusing on encouragingforeign direct investment and trade.[110] Mongolia has been pursuing a 'third-neighbor' foreign policy since early 1990s to build deeper relations and partnerships with countries beyond its two surrounding neighbors.[111]
Mongolian, Chinese and Russian national flags set on armored vehicles during the large-scale military exerciseVostok 2018 in Eastern Siberia
Mongolia supported the2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each toIraq. About 130 troops were deployed toAfghanistan. 200 Mongolian troops are serving inSierra Leone on a UN mandate to protect the UN'sspecial court set up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to send a battalion toChad in support ofMINURCAT.[115]
From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg contingents inKosovo. On 21 November 2005,George W. Bush became the first-ever sitting U.S. president to visit Mongolia.[116] In 2004, under Bulgarian chairmanship, theOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) invited Mongolia as its newest Asian partner.
The percentage of the population the top 10 most populous cities make up.
As of 2020, 47.6% of the population lives in Ulaanbaatar, further 21.4% lived inDarkhan,Erdenet, theaimag centers andsum centers, and other permanent settlements, and 31.0% in rural areas.[120]
Historical development of real GDP per capita in MongoliaView of Ulaanbaatar with theBlue Sky Tower
Economic activity in Mongolia has long been based on herding and agriculture, although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal,molybdenum, tin,tungsten and gold have emerged as a driver of industrial production.[121] Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and agriculture (16% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.[121] Also, Mongolia produces one-fifth of the world's raw cashmere.[122]
Theinformal economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy.[121] As of 2022[update], 78% of Mongolia's exports went to thePRC, and the PRC supplied 36% of Mongolia's imports.[123]
TheWorld Bank has stated that Mongolia's development prospects are promising due to an expansion of mining and large public investment, although challenges remain from inflation, weaker external demand from China, and persistent fiscal risks due to sizable contingent liabilities.[124] According to the Asian Development Bank, 27.1% of Mongolia's population lived below the national poverty line in 2022.[125] In the same year, GDP per capita was estimated at $12,100.[123]
Mongolia's real GDP grew by 7% in 2023 due to record-high coal production, driven by strong demand from China.[126] Inflation in early 2024 dropped to 7% due to lower global food and fuel prices.[126] Despite a robust increase in import volumes, Mongolia recorded a current account surplus due to the sharp increase in coal exports. Mining sector growth is expected to continue driving GDP growth, although theInternational Monetary Fund predicts the current account balance will revert to a sizable deficit due to declining coal prices.[126]
In 2011,Citigroup analysts determined Mongolia to be one of the "global growth generating" countries, which are countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050.[127] TheMongolian Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in Ulaanbaatar, is among the world's smallest stock exchanges bymarket capitalisation.[128][129] As of 2024, it has 180 companies listed with a total market capitalization of US$3.2 billion.[130] TheInternational Finance Corporation (IFC) currently ranks Mongolia as 81st globally in its ease of doing business scoring.[131]
Oyu Tolgoi employs 21,000 workers and produced 168,000 tons of copper in 2023.[132]
Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually rise to 95%. Fiscal revenues from mining represented 21% of government income in 2010 and rose to 24% in 2018.[133][134] About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.[135] Mining continues to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by the number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms starting mining businesses in Mongolia.[4]
In 2009, the Mongolian government negotiated an agreement withRio Tinto andIvanhoe Mines to develop theOyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit,[121] the biggest foreign-investment project in Mongolia at the time. The mine is now a major producer of copper and gold, with plans to further develop underground production and reach an output of 500,000 tons of copper per year.[132] Mongolian's gold production in 2015 is 15 metric tons.[136] Mongolian lawmakers have also attempted to finance the development of theTavan Tolgoi area, the world's largest untapped coal deposit. However, proposed international partnerships failed in 2011 and 2015, with Mongolia further cancelling an internationalinitial public offering in 2020, citing financial and political difficulties.[137]
In September 2022, Mongolia built and launched a 233-km direct rail link to China, which is a milestone in Mongolia's plan to become China's leading supplier of high-quality coal from the Tavan Tolgoi mine, which has more than six billion tonnes of coal reserves.[138]
This article needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(April 2010)
Mongolian landscape
Agriculture in Mongolia constitutes over 10% of Mongolia's annualgross domestic product and employs one-third of the labor force.[139] However, the high altitude, extreme fluctuation in temperature, long winters, and low precipitation provides limited potential for agricultural development. The growing season is only 95 – 110 days.[140] Because of Mongolia's harsh climate, it is unsuited to most cultivation.
The agriculture sector therefore remains heavily focused on nomadic animal husbandry with 75% of the land allocated to pasture, and cropping only employing 3% of the population. About 35% of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding livestock.[141][142] Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern ofnomadic or semi-nomadicpastoralism.
Crops produced in Mongolia includewheat,barley, andpotatoes. Animals raised commercially in Mongolia includesheep,goats,cattle,horses,camels, andpigs. They are raised primarily for their meat, although goats are valued for their hair which can be used to producecashmere. Livestock breeds are increasingly challenged by land degradation and climate change. Populations suffer from more frequent and intense extreme weather events, especially brutal winter seasons calledzuds that destroy forage and can decrease temperatures to around -50°C.[143] Whilezuds used to occur about once every ten years, there have now been six in the past decade, with over six million animals (9% of total livestock) killed by these conditions in the winter of 2024.[144]
Telecommunications in Mongolia face unique challenges. As the least densely populated country in the world, with a significant portion of the population living a nomadic lifestyle, it has been difficult for many traditionalinformation and communication technology (ICT) companies to make headway into Mongolian society. With almost half the population clustered in the capital ofUlaanbaatar, most landline technologies are deployed there. Wireless technologies have had greater success in rural areas.
Mobile phones are common, withprovincial capitals all having4G access.Wireless local loop is another technology that has helped Mongolia increase accessibility to telecommunications and bypass fixed-line infrastructure. For Internet, Mongolia relies onfiber optic communications with its Chinese and Russian neighbors. In 2005, Mongolia's state-run radio and TV provider converted to a public service provider. Private radio and TV broadcasters, multi-channel satellite, andcable TV providers are also available.[145]
Postal services are provided by state-ownedMongol Post and 54 other licensed operators.[146]
Mongolia had a totalprimary energy supply (TPES) of 6.66Mtoe in 2019. Electricity consumption was 7.71TWh.[147] Mongolia is a big producer ofcoal, which is mostly exported.[148] Domestic consumption of coal accounts for about 70% of Mongolia's primary energy and makes up most of the electricity generation, accounting for about 87% of the domestic electricity production in 2019.[147]
Mongolia imports 98% of its fuel and is building its first ever oil refinery to reduce its foreign energy dependency.[149]
Train inZamyn-Üüd station inDornogovi aimagWhile theMongolian horse continues to be revered as the national symbol, they are rapidly being replaced by motorized vehicles.Mongolian ferrySukhbaatar onLake Khovsgol in Khovsgol Province
TheTrans-Mongolian Railway is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It begins at theTrans-Siberian Railway in Russia at the town ofUlan-Ude, crosses into Mongolia, runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China atErenhot where it joins the Chinese railway system. A separate railroad link connects the eastern city ofChoibalsan with the Trans-Siberian Railway. However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town ofChuluunkhoroot.[150] Mongolia also has a 233 km-long cargo rail link from the Tavan Tolgoi coal mine to Chinese border.[151]
Mongolia has a number of domestic airports, with some of them having international status. However, the main international airport isChinggis Khaan International Airport, located approximately 52 km (32 mi) south of the capital Ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and South Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, Germany, and Turkey.MIAT Mongolian Airlines is Mongolia's national air carrier, operating international flights, while air carriers such as Aero Mongolia and Hunnu Airlines serve domestic and short international routes.
Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders, from Ulaanbaatar east- and westward (the so-called Millennium Road), and from Darkhan toBulgan. A number of road construction projects are currently underway. Mongolia has 4,800 km (3,000 mi) of paved roads, with 1,800 km (1,100 mi) of that total completed in 2013 alone.[152]
During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia. Before thePeople's Republic, literacy rates were below one percent. By 1952, illiteracy was virtually eliminated,[153] in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy.
Primary and secondary education formerly lasted ten years, but was expanded to eleven years. Since the 2008–2009 school year, new first-graders are using the 12-year system, with a full transition to the 12-year system in the 2019–2020 school year.[154]
As of 2006[update], English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia, beginning in fourth grade. English has taken over from Russian as the dominant foreign language in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar.[155]
Modern Mongolia inherited a relatively good healthcare system from its socialist period. A World Bank report from 2007 notes "despite its low per capita income, Mongolia has relatively strong health indicators; a reflection of the important health gains achieved during the socialist period." On average Mongolia's infant mortality rate is less than half of that of similarly economically developed countries, its under-five mortality rate and life expectancy are all better on average than other nations with similar GDP per capita.[157]
Since 1990, key health indicators in Mongolia like life expectancy andinfant andchild mortality have steadily improved, both due to social changes and to improvement in the health sector.Echinococcosis was one of the commonest surgical diagnoses in the 1960s, but now has been greatly reduced.[158] Yet, adult health deteriorated during the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century and mortality rates increased significantly.[159] Smallpox, typhus, plague, poliomyelitis, and diphtheria were eradicated by 1981.[citation needed] TheMongolian Red Cross Society focuses on preventive work. TheConfederation of Mongolian Trade Unions established a network of sanatoriums.[160]
Serious problems remain, especially in the countryside.[161] According to a 2011 study by theWorld Health Organization (WHO), Mongolia's capital city,Ulaanbaatar, has the second highest level of fine particle pollution of any city in the world.[162] Poor air quality is also the largest occupational hazard, as over two-thirds of occupational disease in Mongolia is dust induced chronicbronchitis orpneumoconiosis.[163]
The symbol in the left bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon calledSoyombo. It represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in traditionalthangka paintings.
Visual arts
Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts.[164]Thangkas were usually painted or made inappliqué technique. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A number of great works are attributed to the firstJebtsundamba Khutuktu,Zanabazar.
In the late 19th century, painters like"Marzan" Sharav turned to more realistic painting styles. Under theMongolian People's Republic,socialist realism was the dominant painting style,[165] however traditionalthangka-like paintings dealing with secular, nationalist themes were also popular, a genre known as "Mongolzurag".
Among the first attempts to introducemodernism into the fine arts of Mongolia was the paintingEhiin setgel (Mother's love) created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The artist was purged as his work was censored.[citation needed]
All forms of fine arts flourished only afterperestroika in the late 1980s. Otgonbayar Ershuu is arguably one of the most well-known Mongolian modern artists in the Western world, he was portrayed in the film "ZURAG" by Tobias Wulff.[166]
The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as ager. In the past it was known by the Russian termyurt, but this has been changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known in English-speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art criticN. Chultem, theger was the basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started asger-temples. When they needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles[clarification needed] with pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of ager. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquées.[167] The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent.[168]
Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian,Tibetan andChinese as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed byZanabazar. An example of theger-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin (18th century) in theErdene Zuu lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian architecture.[167] Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the 25 metres (82 ft) sculpture of Maitreya.
Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrumentmorin khuur
The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also Tibetan Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments, famously themorin khuur, and also the singing styles like theurtyn duu ("long song"), and throat-singing (khoomei). The "tsam" is danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen as reminiscent ofshamanism.
Mongolian media interviewing the oppositionMongolian Green Party in 2008. The media has gained significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s.
Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the Mongolian Communist Party, with the establishment of theUnen ("Truth") newspaper similar to the SovietPravda.[169] Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in which no independent media were allowed.[169] Thedissolution of the Soviet Union had a significant impact on Mongolia, where theone-party state grew into amulti-party democracy, and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront.
A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28, 1998, and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.[170] The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.[171]
Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a newFreedom of Information Act, and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the government.[172][173] Market reforms have led to an annually increasing number of people working in the media, along with students at journalism schools.[172]
In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report,Reporters Without Borders classified the media environment as 98th out of 179, with 1st being most free.[174] In 2016, Mongolia was ranked 60th out of 180.[175]
According to 2014 Asian Development Bank survey, 80% of Mongolians cited television as their main source of information.[176]
The extremecontinental climate of Mongolia and the lowest population density in the world of just 2.2 inhabitants/km2 has influenced the traditional diet. Use ofvegetables andspices are limited. Due to geographic proximity and deep historic ties withChina andRussia, Mongolian cuisine is also influenced byChinese andRussian cuisine.[177]
Mongolia is one of few Asian countries where rice is not a main staple food. Instead, Mongolian people prefer to eat lamb as their staple food rather than rice.
Wheat, barley, and buckwheat predominate more than rice in modern Mongolia.
The main national festival isNaadam, which has been organized for centuries and takes place over three days in the summer, consisting of three Mongolian traditional sports, archery, cross-country horse-racing, and wrestling, traditionally recognized as the Three Manly Games of Naadam. In modern-day Mongolia, Naadam is held from July 11 to 13 in the honor of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State.
Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform. At Naadam, this contest is popular among older Mongolians.
Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military heroDamdin Sükhbaatar scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop.
Mongolian wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition.
Freestyle wrestling has been practised since 1958 in Mongolia.[178] Mongolian freestyle wrestlers have won the first and the most Olympic medals of Mongolia.
Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 100-kilogram class of judo.[179]
Amateur boxing has been practised in Mongolia since 1948.[180] The Mongolian Olympic boxing national team was founded in 1960. The Communist government of Mongolia banned boxing from 1964 to 1967 but the government soon ended the ban.Professional boxing began in Mongolia in the 1990s.
Association football is also played in Mongolia. TheMongolia national football team began playing national games again during the 1990s; but has not yet qualified for a major international tournament. TheMongolia Premier League is the top domestic competition.
Mongoliansumo wrestlerDolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj won 25 top division tournament championships, placing him fourth on theall-time list. In January 2015,Mönkhbatyn Davaajargal took his 33rd top division championship, giving him the most in the history of sumo.
Ulaanbataar holds an annual marathon in June. 2015 was the sixth marathon that has been organized by Ar Mongol. The race starts at Sukhbataar Square and is always open to residents and runners who come especially for this event.[184]
Mongolia holds other traditional festivals throughout the year. TheGolden Eagle Festival, held annually, draws about 400 eagle hunters on horseback, including the travelerМөнхбаярт Батсайхан (Mönkhbayart Batsaikhan), to compete with their birds.[185] TheIce Festival and theThousand Camel Festival are amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals.
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