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| Mongol invasion of Rus' | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theMongol invasion of Europe | |||||||||
 The Mongol invasion of Europe, 1236–1242 | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Mongol Empire Golden Horde | |||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| c. 60,000[1] | c. 25,000–50,000 total including garrisons and tribesmen[2][a] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Heavy | 500,000 (6-7% of the Kievan Rus' population)[4] | ||||||||
TheMongol Empire invaded and conquered much of theKievan Rus' in the mid-13th century, sacking numerous cities such asRyazan,Yaroslavl,Pereyaslavl andVladimir, including the largest:Kiev (50,000 inhabitants) andChernigov (30,000 inhabitants). Thesiege of Kiev in 1240 by the Mongols is generally held to mark the end of the state of Kievan Rus',[5][6] which had already been undergoingfragmentation.[7] Many other principalities and urban centres in the northwest and southwest escaped complete destruction or suffered little to no damage from the Mongol invasion, includingGalicia–Volhynia,Pskov,Smolensk,Polotsk,Vitebsk, and probablyRostov andUglich.[5][8][9][10]
The Mongol campaign was heralded by theBattle of the Kalka River on 31 May 1223, which resulted in a Mongol victory over the forces of several principalities as well as the remnants of theCumans underKöten. The Mongols retreated, having gathered their intelligence, which was the purpose of thereconnaissance-in-force. A full-scale invasion byBatu Khan followed, with most of Kievan Rus' overrun in 1236–1238.[7] The Mongols captured Kiev in 1240 and moved west intoHungary andPoland.[7] The heavy losses suffered by the Mongols during the invasion period significantly weakened subsequent campaigns, preventing the ruin of theHoly Roman Empire and more western countries.[11][12]
The invasion was ended by the Mongol succession process upon the death ofÖgedei Khan. Even those principalities who avoided physical conquest were eventually forced to accept Mongol supremacy in the form of tribute – as in the case ofGalicia–Volhynia,Polotsk andNovgorod – if not outright vassalage, of theGolden Horde, until well into the 14th century.[6] Although a Russian army defeated the Mongols at theBattle of Kulikovo in 1380, the Mongolian demands of tribute from Russian princes continued until about 1480.[7]
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The Mongols had plans to conquerEastern Europe long beforeBatu's campaign in 1237. In 1207,Genghis Khan sent his eldest sonJochi to conquer the tribes north of theSelenga River and in theIrtysh valley, which included the lands of Eastern Europe in theJochi Ulus. However, these plans were not implemented during the lifetime of Genghis Khan. In 1222–1224,Subutai andJebe conducted a campaign with a 30,000-strong army inTranscaucasia and Southeastern Europe, which is traditionally considered as a reconnaissance. However, theSecret History of the Mongols andRashid ad-Din state that the purpose of this campaign was to be supported by the forces of Jochi and includedCumania,Alania,Hungary, andRus', includingKiev. Thekurultai of 1235, after which the invasion of Europe took place, repeated these goals. The campaign of Subutai and his 30,000 troops to theCaspian steppes was a new step in the conquest of Eastern Europe, and it began in the late 1220s. In 1235, a kurultai was convened to outline a general Mongol campaign, in which the troops of other uluses (clans or tribes) were to take part.Ögedei sent Batu,Büri,Möngke, and other princes on a campaign to help Subutai, and eachChingizid led with him one or moretumens of the army. The Mongols prepared for an offensive in 1235 and early 1236 and subjugated theBashkir tribes, who were forced to allocate several detachments to the Mongol army. The Mongols concentrated in theCaspian steppes in the autumn of 1236 under the general leadership of Jochi's son Batu. The first blow of the united Chingizid army targetedVolga Bulgaria.[13]
The princes ofGalicia–Volhynia andChernigov initially defeated the Mongols atBattle of Oleshia in May 1223.[14] The Mongols (called "Tartars" in contemporary accounts) then defeated a united Rus' army led byMstislav the Bold andMstislav Romanovich the Old on 31 May 1223 at theBattle of the Kalka River. In 1237, they besieged and tookRyazan, andVladimir fell in early February 1238.[5] "For our sins", wrote a chronicler, "unknown nations arrived. No one knew their origin or whence they came, or what religion they practiced. That is known only to God, and perhaps to wise men learned in books".[15] Although this defeat left the principalities at the mercy of invaders, the Mongol or Tartar forces retreated and did not reappear for another 13 years, during which time the princes of Rus' went on quarreling and fighting as before, until they were startled by a new and much more formidable invading force. InThe Secret History of the Mongols, the only reference to this early battle is:
Then he (Genghis Khan) sent Dorbei the Fierce off against the city of Merv, and on to conquer the people between Iraq and the Indus. He sent Subetei the Brave off to war in the North where he defeated eleven kingdoms and tribes, crossing the Volga and Ural Rivers, finally going to war with Kiev.[citation needed]
TheSecret History of the Mongols reports that Ögedei sent Batu, Büri, Möngke, and many other princes on a campaign to help Subutai, who was facing strong resistance from various peoples and cities under Genghis Khan's command. The list ofGenghisides who participated in the campaign is present in works such asThe Secret Legend,Yuan Shi, andJami' al-tawarikh. In addition to Batu, other Chingizids who participated in the campaign included the sons ofJochi,Orda,Shiban, Tangkut andBerke; the son ofChagatai,Baidar, and the grandson of Chagatai, Büri; the sons of Ögedei,Güyük andKadan; the sons ofTolui, Möngke andAriq Böke; the son of Genghis Khan, Külkhan, and the grandson of Genghis Khan's brother, Argasun. In 1235 and early 1236, the assembled army prepared for an offensive, and then subjugated theBashkir tribes, who were forced to allocate several detachments to the Mongol army. In the autumn of 1236, the Mongols concentrated on theCaspian steppes under the general leadership of Jochi's son Batu.[16]
The first blow of the united Chingizid army struck Volga Bulgaria. Until the mid-1220s, Volga Bulgaria was in constant conflict with theVladimir-Suzdal andMurom-Ryazan principalities. The parties undertook campaigns, there were constant skirmishes, the victories in which were mainly won by Rus' troops. However, with the appearance of the Mongols at their borders, the Bulgars began to seek peace, which was met with understanding and support from the Rus' princes. Over the course of several years, the Rus' and the Bulgars normalized relations, which allowed the Volga Bulgaria to devote all its forces to preparing to repel the alleged Mongol invasion.Ramparts were created in the forests that covered the main cities, the cities themselves were fortified, and the garrisons increased. However, all these measures were in vain – the Volga Bulgaria was defeated with lightning speed and completely conquered by the spring of 1237.[citation needed]
The next stage of the campaign was an attack on theCumans andAlans. From theLower Volga region, the Mongols moved on a broad front to the mouth of theDon, where another concentration of troops took place. The offensive continued until the autumn of 1237 and ended with the defeat of the Cumans and Alans. After that, the Mongols conquered the lands of theBurtas,Mokshas, andErzyas. The grandiose Zolotarevskoe battle took place near a strategic crossing over theSura. According to the historian Vadim Kargalov (1932-2009), the fighting in 1237 was undertaken to create a springboard for a campaign against Rus'. By the end of the year, a huge Mongol army and detachments allied with Batu stood on theborders of Russia. Preparations for a winter campaign against Northeastern Rus' by the Mongols began in the autumn of 1237. Their troops were grouped nearVoronezh, and detachments that had previously fought with the Cumans and Alans were drawn there.[citation needed]
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The vast Mongolian Great Khanate army of around 120,000[17]mounted archers, commanded by Batu Khan and Subutai, crossed theVolga River andinvaded Volga Bulgaria in late 1236. It took them only a month to extinguish the resistance of theVolga Bulgars, theCumans-Kipchaks and theAlans.[citation needed]
Immediately prior to the invasion,Friar Julian fromHungary had travelled to the eastern border of the Rus' and learned of the Mongol army, which was waiting for the onset of winter so that they could cross the frozen rivers and swamps. In his letter to the Pope's legate in Hungary, Julian described meeting Mongol messengers who had been detained byYuri II of Vladimir on their way to Hungary. Yuri II gave their letter to Julian.[18]
In November 1237, Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II and demanded his submission. According to theLaurentian Codex, the Mongols actually came seeking peace, but Yuri II treated them with disdain:
As they did before, the messengers came, those evil bloodsuckers, saying: "Make peace with us". He did not want that, as the prophet said: "Glorious war is better than disgraceful peace". These godless men with their deceitful peace will cause great dismay to our lands, as they have already done much evil here.[19]
— Yuri II
Regardless of what impression Yuri II may have given the Mongol delegations, of which several are mentioned, he did his best to avoid direct conflict. He sent them away with what were described as gifts, which were essentially tribute or bribes to keep them from invading.[20]
The Mongols attacked from several directions. One section attackedSuzdal, one from theVolga, and another from the south towardsRyazan. According toRashid al-Din Hamadani, theSiege of Ryazan was conducted by Batu,Orda,Güyük, Möngke, Kulkan,Kadan, and Büri. The city fell after three days.[21] Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the invaders, but they were defeated and ran for their lives. Yuri II also fledVladimir forYaroslavl.[20]
Having burnt downKolomna andMoscow, the horde laid siege toVladimir on 4 February 1238. Three days later, the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal was taken and burnt to the ground. The royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, Vladimir mustered a new army, which was encircled and totally annihilated by the Mongols in theBattle of the Sit River on 4 March.[citation needed]
And the Tartars took the town [of Ryazan] on December 21... They likewise killed the [Prince] and Knyaginya, and men, women and children, monks, nuns and priests, some by fire, some by the sword and violated nuns, priests' wives, good women and girls in the presence of their mothers and sisters.[22]
Thereupon Batu Khan divided his army into smaller units, which ransacked fourteen cities of northeastern Rus':Rostov,Uglich,Yaroslavl,Kostroma,Kashin,Ksnyatin,Gorodets,Galich,Pereslavl-Zalessky,Yuryev-Polsky,Dmitrov,Volokolamsk,Tver, andTorzhok.Chinesesiege engines were used by the Mongols underTolui to raze the walls of many cities.[23] The most difficult to take was the small town ofKozelsk, whose boy-prince Vasily, son of Titus Mstislavich, and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks, killing 4,000. As the story goes, at the news of the Mongol approach, the whole town ofKitezh with all its inhabitants was submerged into a lake, where, as legend has it, it may be seen to this day.[citation needed] Major principalities and urban centres which escaped destruction or suffered little to no damage from the Mongol invasion includedNovgorod,Pskov,Smolensk,Polotsk,Vitebsk, and probablyRostov andUglich.[8] The Mongols planned to advance on Novgorod, but the principality was spared the fate of its brethren by the decision to preemptively surrender.[24] In mid-1238, Batu Khan devastated theCrimea and pacifiedMordovia. In the winter of 1239, he sackedChernigov andPereyaslavl.
WhileKiev and itsgrand prince was still formally acknowledged as senior amongst the principalities of Rus', frequent internecine dynastic feuding among rival claimants had left the city weakened. Indeed, by the time Kiev fell to the Mongols, the head of the city's defenses owed allegiance to PrinceDaniel of thePrincipality of Galicia–Volhynia. Prince Daniel had taken Kiev under his protection the previous year by arrangement with PrinceMichael of Kiev, who fled after originally resisting the Mongols, then losing to them his main stronghold,Chernigov.
The Mongols approach on Kiev in November 1240 apparently made a grim impression upon its defenders. The chronicler wrote, "And nothing could be heard above the squeaking of his carts, the bawling of his [Batu’s] innumerable camels, and the neighing of his herds of horses, and the Land of Rus’ was full of enemies." After many days ofsiege, the horde stormedKiev in December 1240. The city was ransacked and pillaged immensely, although the building ofSt. Sophia Cathedral survived intact.[5] HistorianSerhii Plokhy relates the description of oneGiovanni da Pian del Carpine, an ambassador ofPope Innocent IV who passed through Kiev six years later: "When we were journeying through that land, we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground".[citation needed]
Batu Khan's forces went on to ravage much ofGalicia–Volhynia, despite Daniel's fierce resistance.[25] However, Batu Khan failed to captureKremenets,Danilov [uk;ru] andKholm, which he was forced to bypass after unsuccessful sieges.[26][27] The Tartars then resolved to "reach the ultimate sea", where they could proceed no further and invadedHungary (under Batu Khan) andPoland (underBaidar andKaidu).[25] Batu Khan capturedPest, and then on Christmas Day 1241,Esztergom.[25]
The principalities became part of the Jochid appanage ruled by Batu. Batu sited a semi-nomadic capital, calledSarai or Sarai Batu (Batu's Palaces), on the lower Volga. The Jochid appanage came to be known as theGolden Horde.[28]
TheYstoria Mongalorum, written by Italian diplomatGiovanni da Pian del Carpine (Latin:Iohannes de Plano Carpini) in Latin just after he visited Kiev in 1246, contains a brief passage mentioning the siege of Kiev that happened several years earlier.[29] Although frequently cited by earlier historians, the accuracy of this account has been questioned, especially because the passage from the first redaction of Carpini's manuscript copies was substantially expanded in the second redaction, which breaks the narrative of the first, and partially contradicts it.[30]
| First redaction of Carpini'sYstoria Mongalorum[30] | Second redaction of Carpini'sYstoria Mongalorum[30] (authenticity disputed[30]) |
|---|---|
| Subduing this country they attacked Rus', where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege of Kiev, the capital of Rus'; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death.[31] | Subduing this country they attacked Rus', where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege of Kiev, the capital of Rus'; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death.[31] |
| –[31] | When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced to almost nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete servitude.[31] |
| Going on from there, fighting as they went, the Tatars destroyed the whole of Rus'.[31] | Going on from there, fighting as they went, the Tatars destroyed the whole of Rus'.[31] |
While the first redaction text states that the Mongols "put the inhabitants to death", suggesting that the entire population was killed and there were no survivors, this is contradicted by the second-redaction statement that "the inhabitants are kept in complete servitude", meaning that at least some had to be left alive to be "kept in complete servitude".[30] The added text thus seems likely to be an inauthenticinterpolation.[30] Questions have also been raised as to whether Carpini really "was describing Kiev or some other town he was told was Kiev", as there are no other extant descriptions of what Kiev looked like at the time, and Carpini does not mention any landmarks such asSaint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv that would make this identification unambiguous.[29]
The influence of the Mongol invasion on the territories was uneven.[7]Colin McEvedy estimates the population dropped from 7.5 million prior to the invasion to seven million afterwards.[4] Centres such asKiev took centuries to rebuild and recover from the devastation of the initial attack. TheNovgorod Republic continued to prosper, and a new entity, thePrincipality of Moscow, began to flourish under the Mongols.[7]
Moscow's eventual dominance in northeastern Rus' was in large part attributable to the Mongols.[7] Moscow drew people and wealth, developed trade links, and established an autocratic political system which exerted a powerful influence on Russian society.[7] After the prince ofTver ledan uprising in 1327, the rival princeIvan I of Moscow joined the Mongols in crushing Tver and devastating its lands. By doing so, he eliminated his rival, allowed theRussian Orthodox Church to move its headquarters to Moscow, and was granted the title ofGrand Prince by the Mongols.[32][33]
As such, the Muscovite prince became the chief intermediary between the Mongol overlords and the Russian princes, which paid further dividends for Moscow's rulers.[33] In the 14th century, the Muscovite princes began "gathering Russian lands" to increase its population and wealth. While the Mongols often raided other territories, they tended to respect the lands controlled by their principal collaborator. This, in turn, attracted nobles and their servants who sought to settle in the relatively secure and peaceful lands of Moscow.[33] Although a Russian army defeated theGolden Horde at theBattle of Kulikovo in 1380, the Mongol domination of Russian-inhabited territories, with the requisite demands of tribute, continued until theGreat Stand on the Ugra River in 1480.[32][33]
The invasion had significant consequences on the population. Many cities and fortified points were wiped out, with only a fraction surviving. The once flourishing cities ofKiev,Novgorod, andVladimir suffered a sharp decline, with their populations shrinking to a fraction of what they were before the invasion. For example, Kiev, which had around 50,000 people, had only about 200 houses left after the invasion, according to the papal legateGiovanni da Pian del Carpine.[34]
The decline of cities was also accompanied by a decline in culture, crafts, and trade. The pre-Mongol period was considered the heyday of culture, crafts, and trade in ancient Rus', but after the invasion, many cities fell into decay, and stone construction was halted for a long time. Economic ties between cities and surrounding villages were severed, and it took more than 100 years for Russian cities to recover from the invasion ofBatu Khan and its consequences.[35]
The destruction of cities and the decline in culture and economy had long-term consequences for Russia. The country was left behind in terms of economic development. The Mongol-Tatar invasion also had a significant impact on Russia's political development, as it paved the way for the emergence of the centralized Moscow state, which gradually absorbed other principalities and became the dominant power in Russia. Overall, the invasion of Batu Khan had a profound and lasting impact on the history of Russia.[citation needed]
Stone construction in Russian cities practically ceased for several decades. The production of complex crafts, such as glass jewelry,Cloisonné enamel,niello,granulation, andpolychrome glazed ceramics stopped. As a result, the Russian handicraft industry regressed several centuries, while the guild industry in the West progressed to the era of primitive accumulation. The Russian handicraft industry had to reacquire the gains that had been made before the invasion.[36]
As a result of the invasion many people were forced to flee in front of the advancing tumens of Batu, and in northeastern Rus', residents of theVladimir-Suzdal andRyazan principalities sought refuge in more northern lands beyond theVolga. Others fled to sparsely populated areas, taking refuge in dense forests. However, after the departure of the Mongol-Tatars, most of them returned to their former places of residence.
In fact, just a year after the fall of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the number of returnees was so great that PrinceYaroslav Yaroslavich was able to gather a large army among them for a campaign against theLithuanians. Meanwhile, the inhabitants of South Russia's principalities, such asKiev,Pereyaslav, andChernigov, fled to northeastern Russia immediately after the invasion.[37]
However, this was not the end of population migrations.Vladimir,Suzdal,Pereslavl-Zalessky, and other cities of northeastern Rus' were repeatedly targeted by Mongol-Tatar campaigns in the second half of the 13th century. As a result, many of their inhabitants gradually moved either to the vicinity ofMoscow andTver, or to the north in regions such asYaroslavl,Galich,Veliky,Ustyug, and more.[citation needed]
Historians have debated the long-term influence of Mongol rule on society.[7] The Mongols have been blamed for the destruction of Kievan Rus' and the breakup of a "Russian" nationality into three components, and the introduction of the concept of "oriental despotism" into Russia. Such fears also manifested into theYellow Peril inside Imperial Russia.[7]
However, most historians agree that Kievan Rus' was not a homogenous entity in a political, cultural, or ethnic sense, and that the invasions only accelerated the period of feudal fragmentation that had begun prior to the invasions.[7] Historians also credit the Mongol regime with an important role in the development of Muscovy as a state.[7] Under Mongol occupation, for example, Muscovy developed itsmestnichestvo hierarchy,postal road network (based on Mongolianortoo system, known in Russian as "yam", hence the termsyamshchik,Yamskoy Prikaz, etc.),census, fiscal system and military organization.[7][38]
The period of Mongol rule over the former Rus' polities included significant cultural and interpersonal contacts between the Slavic and Mongolian ruling classes. By 1450, theTatar language had become fashionable in the court of the Grand Prince of Moscow,Vasily II, who was accused of excessive love of the Tatars and their speech, and many Russian noblemen adopted Tatar surnames (for example, a member of the Veliamanov family adopted the Turkic name "Aksak" and his descendants were theAksakovs).[39]
Many Russianboyar (noble) families traced their descent from the Mongols or Tatars, including Veliaminov-Zernov, Godunov, Arseniev, Bakhmetev,Bulgakov (descendants of Bulgak) and Chaadaev (descendants of Genghis Khan's sonChagatai Khan). In a survey of Russian noble families of the 17th century, over 15% of the Russian noble families had Tatar or Oriental origins.[40]
The Mongols brought about changes in the economic power of states and overall trade. In the religious sphere, St. Paphnutius of Borovsk was the grandson of a Mongolbaskak, or tax collector, while a nephew ofKhan Bergai of theGolden Horde converted toChristianity and became known as the monk St. Peter Tsarevich of the Horde.[41]
In the judicial sphere, under Mongol influence capital punishment, which during the times of Kievan Rus' had only been applied to slaves, became widespread, and the use of torture became a regular part of criminal procedure. Specific punishments introduced in Moscow included beheading for alleged traitors and branding of thieves (with execution for a third arrest).[42]
Donald Ostrowski argues that Muscovy's adoption of Mongol institutions and practices may demonstrate the pragmatism of the Muscovite leaders, which enabled them to eventually "triumph over their competitors in northeastern Rus'".[43]
According toCharles J. Halperin (2011), Fomenko and Nosovskii's popular pseudohistoricalNovaia khronologiia (New Chronology), which received some attention in the early 1980s, arose out of "the dilemma of the Mongol conquest in Russian historiography": embarrassment among defensive Russian nationalists who object to "Russophobic" arguments that Russia acquired "barbarian" customs, institutions, and culture from uncivilized nomads.[44]
American Cold War analysts, also linked the Soviet government's autocratic rule to Tatar influences during its history, and biographies of Russian leaders often stressed their possible Asiatic ancestries. They maintained that Asiatic influences rendered the Russians untrustworthy.[45][46]
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)The Mongols invaded the Russian steppes at this time, reaching the Crimea before turning back at the Khan's orders. The youngest son of Genghis, Tului, was given the special task of destroying walled cities during this campaign, employing the Chinese engines
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