Amonarchy is a hereditaryform of government in which political power is legally passed on to the family members of themonarch, a head of state who rules for life.[1] While monarchs gain their power depending on specific succession laws, they can also gain their authority viaelection.[2]
The wordmonarch first appeared in the mid-15th century as monark, meaning “a supreme governor for life, a sole or autocratic ruler of a state.” It comes from the Old French monarche (14th century, Modern French monarque) and directly from the Late Latin monarcha, which in turn derives from the Greek monarkhēs, meaning “one who rules alone” (see monarchy).[5] The termmonarchy dates back to the mid-14th century, when it referred to a kingdom or territory ruled by a monarch, and by the late 14th century it also meant rule by a single person with supreme power. It comes from Old French monarchie (13th century), meaning “sovereignty” or “absolute power,” which was borrowed from Late Latin monarchia and ultimately from Greek monarkhia, “absolute rule,” literally “ruling of one,” from monos (“alone”) and arkhein (“to rule”).[6]
Polybius identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy,aristocracy, anddemocracy), opposed to the three "malignant" basic forms of government (tyranny,oligarchy, andochlocracy). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as "king" or "ruler" (translatingarchon,basileus,rex,tyrannos, etc.) or as "queen" (basilinna,basilissa,basileia orbasilis;[11]regina). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component ofrepublics, but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies.[12] The 4th-century BCE Hindu textArthasastra laid out the ethics of monarchism.[13] In antiquity, some monarchies wereabolished in favour of such assemblies inRome (Roman Republic, 509 BCE), andAthens (Athenian democracy, 500 BCE).
Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively ofrepublics has been calledrepublicanism, while the advocacy of monarchies is calledmonarchism. As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy,[15][16][17] despite some having seeninfringements through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state, such as inNorth Korea.[18]
With the rise of republicanism, a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchistradicalism) andconservative or evenreactionarymonarchism. In the following 20th century many countries abolished the monarchy and became republics, especially in the wake ofWorld War I andWorld War II.
Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have amonarch, including fifteenCommonwealth realms that haveCharles III as the head of state. Most modern monarchs areconstitutional monarchs, who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under a constitution. Many are so-calledcrowned republics, surviving particularly in small states.[19]
In some nations, however, such asMorocco,Qatar,Liechtenstein, andThailand, the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state.[20][21][22][23]
According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined.[24]
According to a 2023 study, monarchy has persisted as a regime type because it can accommodate demands fordemocratization better than other forms of autocratic rule: "Monarchies can democratize without destabilizing the leadership through transitioning to a democraticconstitutional monarchy. The prospect of retaining the ruler appeals to opposition groups who value both democracy and stability, but it also has implications for their ability to organize and sustain mass protest."[25]
Monarchies are associated withhereditary reign, in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern-day, have been born and brought up within aroyal family, the centre of theroyal household andcourt. Growing up in a royal family (called adynasty when it continues for severalgenerations),future monarchs are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch.[26]
In anabsolute monarchy, the monarch rules with absolute power over the state and government
In aconstitutional monarchy, the monarch's power is subject to aconstitution. In most current constitutional monarchies, the monarch is mainly a ceremonialfigurehead symbol of national unity and state continuity.
Semi-constitutional monarchies exhibit fewer parliamentary powers or simply monarchs with more authority.[31] The term "parliamentary monarchy" may be used to differentiate from semi-constitutional monarchies.
In ahereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customaryorder of succession, usually within oneroyal family tracing its origin through a historicaldynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession.[32][33]
Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch orhead of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession.[34] This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of theSalic law. Another variation on agnatic primogeniture was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator.[34][35]
Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings incoregency—a senior king and a junior king. Examples wereHenry the Young King of England and the earlyDirect Capetians in France. Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line.
In 1980,Sweden became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.[36] Other kingdoms (such as theNetherlands in 1983,Norway in 1990,Belgium in 1991,Denmark in 2009, andLuxembourg[37] in 2011) have since followed suit. TheUnited Kingdom adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture (subject to the claims of existing heirs) on April 25, 2013, followingagreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[38]
Other hereditary systems of succession includedtanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit andAgnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such asSaudi Arabia, succession to the throne first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority). On June 21, 2017, King Salman of Saudi Arabi revolted against this style of monarchy and elected his son to inherit the throne.[39][40]
ThePope of theRoman Catholic Church (who rules asSovereign of theVatican City State) iselected for life by theCollege of Cardinals.[42] In theSovereign Military Order of Malta, thePrince and Grand Master is elected for life tenure by the Council Complete of State from within its members. InMalaysia, the federal king, called theYang di-Pertuan Agong or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five-year term from among and by the hereditary rulers (mostlysultans) of nine of the federation's constitutivestates, all on theMalay peninsula.[43] TheUnited Arab Emirates also chooses its federal leaders from among emirs of the federated states. Furthermore,Andorra has a unique constitutional arrangement as one of its heads of state is the President of theFrench Republic in the form of aCo-Prince.[44] In New Zealand, the Maori King, head of the Kingitanga Movement, is elected by a council of Maori elders at the funeral of their predecessor, which is also where their coronation takes place. All of the Heads of the Maori King Movement have been descendants of the first Maori King, Potatau Te Wherowhero, who was elected and became King in June 1858.
Another way monarchs have historically gained royal power is by seizing it, either by force or other illegitimate measures. Historically usurpation has usually happened via acoup or by fraudulently claiming be a descendant of a ruler that they may or may not be related to. According toHerodotus, this was done by someone impersonatingSmerdis in order to seize the throne ofCyrus the Great after his death.[45]
This is especially employed to legitimize and settle disputed successions, changes in ways of succession, status of a monarch (e.g. as in the case of theprivilegium maius deed) or new monarchies altogether (e.g. as in the case of thecoronation of Napoleon I).
In cases of succession challenges, it can be instrumental forpretenders to secure or installlegitimacy through the above, for example proof of accession like insignia, through treaties or a claim of a divine mandate to rule (e.g. byHong Xiuquan and hisTaiping Heavenly Kingdom).
World's states colored by systems ofgovernment:Parliamentary systems: Head of government is elected or nominated by and accountable to the legislature.
Presidential system: Head of government (president) is popularly elected and independent of the legislature.
Presidential republic
Hybrid systems:
Semi-presidential republic: Executive president is independent of the legislature; head of government is appointed by the president and is accountable to the legislature.
Assembly-independent republic: Head of government (president or directory) is elected by the legislature, but is not accountable to it.
Other systems:
Theocratic republic: Supreme Leader is both head of state and faith and holds significant executive and legislative power
TheKingdom of Bhutan, theKingdom of Cambodia, theKingdom of Thailand, andJapan are constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or merely ceremonial role. Bhutan made the change in 2008.[57] Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from theFrench colonial empire, but it was deposed after theKhmer Rouge came into power. The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993. Thailand transitioned into a constitutional monarchy over the course of the 20th century. Japan has had a monarchy, anemperor, according to legend, since Emperor Jimmu (reigned 660–585 BCE), making it the world's oldest existing monarchy.[58] After their defeat in theSecond World War, Japan was forced into limiting the power of the Emperor, giving almost all of it to theNational Diet.
Eswatini is unique among these monarchies, often being considered adiarchy: the King, orNgwenyama, rules alongside his mother, theNdlovukati, as dual heads of state.[59][60] This was originally intended to provide a check on political power. The Ngwenyama, however, is considered the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is considered the spiritual and national head of state, a position which more or less has become symbolic in recent years.[61]
ThePope is the absolute monarch of the Vatican City State (a separate entity from theHoly See) by virtue of his position as head of theRoman Catholic Church and Bishop of Rome; he is an elected rather than a hereditary ruler, and does not have to be a citizen of the territory prior to his election by the cardinals.[62][63]
InSamoa, the position of head of state is described in Part III of the 1960Samoan constitution. At the time the constitution was adopted, it was anticipated that future heads of state would be chosen from among the four Tama a 'Aiga "royal" paramount chiefs. However, this is not required by the constitution, and, for this reason, Samoa can be considered a republic rather than aconstitutional monarchy. However, each member of theSamoan parliament, except for the two seats reserved for non-Samoans, must be amatai, a member of the hereditary political system known as theFaʻamatai.[64]
^Political Violence in Ancient India, p.23, "In later Vedic texts, the frequency of the word "dharma" decreased and its connotations shrank; it came to be especially connected with kingship and with the royal consecration ritual known as the rājasūya."
^Traditions and encounters.McGraw–Hill Education. p. 63.By about 5000 b.c.e. many Sudanic peoples had formed small monarchies ruled by kings who were viewed as divine or semidivine beings.
^"Definition of Republic".Merriam-Webster Dictionary. RetrievedFebruary 18, 2017.a government having a chief of state who is not a monarch ... a government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law
^"The definition of republic".Dictionary.com. RetrievedFebruary 18, 2017.a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by representatives chosen directly or indirectly by them. ... a state in which the head of government is not a monarch or other hereditary head of state.
^W. Veenendaal, "Monarchy and Democracy in Small States: An Ambiguous Symbiosis," in S. Wolf, ed.,State Size Matters: Politik und Recht I'm Kontext von Kleinstaatlichkeit und Monarchie (Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 2016), pp. 183–198,doi:10.1007/978-3-658-07725-9_9,ISBN978-3-658-07724-2.
^Young W. Kihl, Hong Nack Kim.North Korea: The Politics of Regime Survival. Armonk, New York, USA: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 2006. Pp 56.
^Robert A. Scalapino, Chong-Sik Lee.The Society. University of California Press, 1972. Pp. 689.
^Bong Youn Choy. A history of the Korean reunification movement: its issues and prospects. Research Committee on Korean Reunification, Institute of International Studies, Bradley University, 1984. Pp. 117.
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