InEuropean history,monarchy was the prevalent form of government throughout theMiddle Ages, only occasionally competing withcommunalism, notably in the case of themaritime republics and theSwiss Confederacy.
In theearly modern period (1500–1800 CE),republicanism became more prevalent, but monarchy still remained predominant in Europe until the end of the 19th century. AfterWorld War I, however, most European monarchies were abolished. There remain, as of 2025, twelve sovereign monarchies in Europe. Seven arekingdoms:Denmark,Norway,Sweden, theUnited Kingdom,Spain, theNetherlands, andBelgium. Three areprincipalities:Andorra,Liechtenstein, andMonaco. Finally,Luxembourg is agrand duchy andVatican City is atheocratic,elective monarchy ruled by thepope.
The monarchies can be divided into two broad classes: premodern states and those that gained their independence during or immediately after theNapoleonic Wars. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, the UK, Spain, and Andorra are the successors to premodern monarchies. Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg were established or gained independence through various methods during the Napoleonic Wars. The State of the Vatican City was recognized as a sovereign state administered by theHoly See in 1929.
Ten of these monarchies arehereditary, and two are elective: Vatican City (the pope, elected at thepapal conclave), andAndorra (technically a semi-elective diarchy, the joint heads of state being the electedpresident of France and theBishop of Urgell, appointed by the pope).
Most of the monarchies in Europe areconstitutional monarchies, which means that the monarch does not influence the politics of the state: either the monarch is legally prohibited from doing so, or the monarch does not utilize the political powers vested in the office byconvention. The exceptions are Liechtenstein and Monaco, which are usually considered semi-constitutional monarchies due to the large influence the princes still have on politics. There is currently no major campaign to abolish the monarchy (seemonarchism andrepublicanism) in any of the twelve states, although there is at least a small minority of republicans in many of them (e.g. the political organisationRepublic in the United Kingdom). Currently six of the twelve monarchies are members of theEuropean Union: Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden.
At the start of the 20th century, France, Switzerland andSan Marino were the only European nations to have a republican form of government. The ascent ofrepublicanism to the political mainstream started only at the beginning of the 20th century, facilitated by the toppling of various European monarchies after the end ofWorld War I; as at the beginning of the 21st century, most of thestates in Europe are republics with either a directly or indirectly electedhead of state.
The notion of kingship in Europe ultimately originates in systems oftribal kingship inprehistoric Europe. TheMinoan (c. 3200 –c. 1400 BCE) andMycenaean civilisation (c. 1600 –c. 1100 BCE) provide the earliest examples of monarchies inprotohistoric Greece. Thanks to the decipherment of theLinear B script in 1952, much knowledge has been acquired about society in the Mycenaean realms, where the kings functioned as leaders ofpalace economies.[1] The role of kings changed in the followingGreek Dark Ages (c. 1100 –c. 750 BCE) to biggentleman farmers with military power.[1]
Since the beginning ofantiquity, monarchy confronted several republican forms of government, wherein executive power was in the hands of a number of people that elected leaders in a certain way instead of appointing them by hereditary succession. During thearchaic period (c. 750–500 BCE), kingship disappeared in almost all Greekpoleis,[2] andalso in Rome (then still a barely significant town). After the demise of kingship, the Greek city-states were initially most often led by nobility (aristocracy), after which their economic and military power base crumbled. Next, in almost all poleis tyrants usurped power for two generations (tyranny, 7th and especially 6th century BCE), after which gradually forms of governments led by the wealthy (oligarchy) or assemblies of free male citizens (democracy) emerged inClassical Greece (mainly after 500 BCE).[3]Athenian democracy (6th century–322 BCE) is the best-known example of the latter form;classical Sparta (c. 550–371 BCE) was a militaristic polis with a remarkable mix between monarchy (dual kingship), aristocracy (Gerousia) and democracy (Apella);[4] theRoman Republic (c. 509–27 BCE) had a mixed constitution of oligarchy, democracy and especially aristocracy.[5] The city-states of theEtruscan civilization (which arose during theVillanovan period, c. 900–700 BCE) appear to have followed a similar pattern, with the original monarchies being overthrown and replaced by oligarchic republics in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.[citation needed]
The dominant poleis ofAthens and Sparta were weakened by warring each other, especially during thePeloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) won by Sparta. They were defeated and ruled byThebes for a time (371–360 BCE), after which Sparta's role was over. Eventually, all of Greece was subjugated by theMacedonian monarchy in 338 BCE, that put an end to the era of free autonomous city-states, and Athenian democracy as well in 322 BCE.[6] In the subsequentHellenistic period (334–30 BCE)[7] numerousdiadochs (successors ofAlexander the Great) fought one another for the kingship of Macedon, definitively obtained by theAntigonids in 277 BCE.[8] Meanwhile, thePhoenician city-state ofCarthage, located in present-dayTunisia, aside from settling large swaths of North Africa's coast, also set up several colonies onSicily, Sardinia, Corsica, theBaleares and insouthern Iberia.[9] The Carthaginian empire, according to tradition founded in 814 BCE, started out as a monarchy, but in the 4th century transformed into a republic wheresuffets ("judges") ruled. Finally, Rome gradually conquered all of Italy (primarily after 350 BCE), and defeated Carthage in thePunic Wars (264–146 BCE). In 168, Macedon wassubdued by the Romans, and partitioned into four client republics. These were annexed as Roman provinces in 148, as happened to Greece in 146,[8] making Rome's territory envelop all of literate Europe. The remainder of Iberia, the Illyrian coast and eventuallyGaul by generalJulius Caesar were added to the Roman Republic, which however was experiencing an institutional crisis. After defeating his rivalPompey, Caesar was appointeddictator to restore order. He almost managed to found a dynasty in the process, but was killed by a republican cabal led byBrutus in 44 BCE.
Caesar's adoptive son Octavian prevailed in the ensuing civil war, and converted the Roman Republic into theRoman Empire in 27 BCE. He took on the nameAugustus, with the rather humble title ofprinceps ("first [citizen]"), as if he were merelyprimus inter pares ("first among equals"), when he had in fact founded a monarchy. This limited emperorship (Principate) was strengthened in 284 byDiocletian to absolute reign (Dominate).[10] The Empire recognised variousclient kingdoms under imperial suzerainty; most of these were in Asia, but tribal client kings were also recognized by the Roman authoritiesin Britannia. Most of thebarbarian kingdoms established in the 5th century(the kingdoms of theSuebi,Burgundi,Vandals,Franks,Visigoths,Ostrogoths) recognised the Roman Emperor at least nominally, and Germanic kingdoms would continue to mint coins depicting the Roman emperor well into the 6th century.[11]It was this derivation of the authority of kingship from the Christian Roman Empire that would be at the core of the medieval institution of kingship in Europe and its notion of thedivine right of kings, as well as the position of the Pope inLatin Christendom, the restoration of the Roman Empire underCharlemagne and the derived concept of theHoly Roman Empire in Western and Central Europe.[citation needed]
The monarchies of Europe in the ChristianMiddle Ages derived their claim fromChristianisation and thedivine right of kings, partly influenced by the notion ofsacral kingship inherited fromGermanic antiquity.[citation needed] Thegreat powers of Europe in theEarly modern period were the result of a gradual process of centralization of power taking place over the course of the Middle Ages.[citation needed]
TheEarly Middle Ages begin with a fragmentation of the formerWestern Roman Empire into "barbarian kingdoms".[citation needed] In Western Europe, the kingdom of theFranks developed into theCarolingian Empire by the 8th century, and thekingdoms ofAnglo-Saxon England were unified into thekingdom of England by the 10th century.[citation needed]
With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, the system offeudalism places kings at the head of a pyramid of relationships between liege lords and vassals, dependent on the regional rule ofbarons, and the intermediate positions ofcounts (orearls) anddukes.[citation needed] The core of European feudalmanorialism in theHigh Middle Ages were the territories of thekingdom of France, theHoly Roman Empire (centered on the nominal kingdoms ofGermany andItaly) and the kingdoms ofEngland andScotland.[citation needed]
With the rise of nation-states and theProtestant Reformation, the theory of divine right justified the king's absolute authority in both political and spiritual matters. The theory came to the fore in England under the reign ofJames I of England (1603–1625, also James VI of Scotland 1567–1625).Louis XIV of France (1643–1715) strongly promoted the theory as well.Early modern Europe was dominated by theWars of Religion, notably theThirty Years' War, during which the major European monarchies developed into centralisedgreat powers sustained by theircolonial empires.The main European monarchical powers in the early modern period were:[citation needed]
TheHouse of Habsburg became the most influential royal dynasty in continental Europe by the 17th century, divided into theSpanish andAustrian branches.[citation needed]
_Vienna_Austria.jpg)
The modern resurgence of parliamentarism and anti-monarchism began with theFrench Revolution (1789–99). The absolutistKingdom of France was first transformed to aconstitutional monarchy (1791–92), before beingfully abolished on 21 September 1792, and eventually theformer king even executed, to the other European courts' great shock. During the subsequentFrench Revolutionary Wars (1792–1799), the great European monarchies were unable to restore the monarchy; instead, theFrench First Republic expanded and annexed neighbouring territories, or converted them into loyalsister republics. Meanwhile, theGerman Mediatization of 1803 thoroughly rearranged the political structure of the Holy Roman Empire, with many small principalities and all ecclesiastical lands being annexed by larger monarchies. AfterNapoleon seized power, however, he gradually constructed a new imperial order in French-controlled Europe, first bycrowning himself Emperor of the French in 1804, and then converting the sister republics into monarchies ruled by his relatives. In July 1806 due to Napoleon's campaigns a larger number of states in the Western part of Germany seceded The Holy Roman Empire and this brought in August 1806 the emperorFrancis II to decidedissolving the entire empire, bringing an end to 1833 years of history ofRoman emperors in Europe.[citation needed]
Following Napoleon's defeat in 1814 and 1815, the reactionaryCongress of Vienna determined that all of Europe should consist of strong monarchies (with the exception of Switzerland and a few insignificant republics). In France, theBourbon dynasty was restored, replaced by the liberalJuly Monarchy in 1830, before the entire monarchy was again abolished during theRevolutions of 1848. The popularNapoleon III was able to proclaim himself Emperor in 1852, thus founding theSecond French Empire.[citation needed]
The kingdoms ofSicily andNaples ("Two Sicilies") were absorbed into theKingdom of Sardinia to form theKingdom of Italy in 1861. Austria and Prussia vied to unite all German states under their banner, withPrussia emerging victorious in 1866. It succeeded in provoking Napoleon III to declare war, leading tothe defeat of France, and the absorption of the southern German states into theGerman Empire in the process (1870–71). From the ashes of the Second Empire rose theFrench Third Republic, the only great republican European power until World War I.[citation needed]
Much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division betweenanti-monarchistradicalism andmonarchistconservatism.[citation needed]The Kingdom of Spain wasbriefly abolished in 1873,restored 1874–1931 and againin 1975 (orin 1947).TheKingdom of Portugal was abolished in 1910. TheRussian Empire ended in 1917, theKingdom of Prussia in 1918.TheKingdom of Hungary fellunder Habsburg rule in 1867 and was dissolved in 1918 (restored 1920–1946). Likewise, theKingdom of Bohemia under Habsburg rule was dissolved in 1918. TheOttoman sultanate wasabolished in 1922 and replaced by theRepublic of Türkiye the following year.
TheNapoleonic Wars transformed the political landscape of Europe, and a number of modern kingdoms were formed in a resurgence of monarchism after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the defeat of theFrench Empire:
theAustrian Empire and
Austria-Hungary (1804–1918)
theKingdom of Württemberg (1805–1918)
theKingdom of Bavaria (1805–1918)
theKingdom of Saxony (1806–1918)
theKingdom of the Two Sicilies (1808–1861)
theKingdom of the Netherlands (1813/15 to present)
an independentconstitution for theKingdom of Norway (1814 to present)
theKingdom of France ("Bourbon Restoration")
(1814–1830) followed by
theJuly Monarchy (Kingdom of France) (1830–1848)
theKingdom of Hanover (1814–1866)
theKingdom of Poland (1815–1917), continued later as
theKingdom of Poland (1917–1918)
theKingdom of Belgium (1830 to present)
theKingdom of Greece (1832–1924 & 1935–1973)
theSecond French Empire (1852–1870)
thePrincipality of Montenegro (1852–1910) continued as
theKingdom of Montenegro (1910–1918)
theKingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
thePrincipality of Romania (1862–1881) continued as theKingdom of Romania (1882–1947)
theGerman Empire (1871–1918)
thePrincipality of Bulgaria (1878–1908) continued as theTsardom of Bulgaria (1908–1946)
thePrincipality of Serbia (1815–1882) continued as
theKingdom of Serbia (1882–1918)
thePrincipality of Albania (1914–1925)Many countriesabolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, especially in the wake of eitherWorld War I orWorld War II.
A few new monarchies emerged for a brief period of time in the final years of World War I:[citation needed]
theKingdom of Finland (1918–1919)
theKingdom of Lithuania (1918)
theUkrainian State(Hetmanate) (1918)
theUnited Baltic Duchy (1918)Monarchies established or re-established during theinterbellum period were:[citation needed]
theKingdom of Iceland (1918–1944)
theKingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1945)
theKingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)
theIrish Free State (1922–1937)
theAlbanian Kingdom (1928–1944)
theVatican City State governed by theHoly See (1929 to present) theKingdom of Greece (1935–1973)Monarchies established or re-established from 1940 and onwards:[citation needed]
theKingdom of Croatia (1941–1943)
theKingdom of Spain (1947 to present)
theKingdom of Malta (State of Malta) (1964–1974) |  |  |  |
| European states in 1714 | European states in 1789 | European states in 1799 | European states in 1815 |
 |  |  |  |
| European states in 1914 | European states in 1930 | European states in 1950 | European states in 2015 |
There are currently twelve monarchies in Europe. Eleven of these are constitutional monarchies while one (theVatican City State) is an absolute monarchy.
Andorra has been aco-principality since the signing of aparéage in 1278, when thecount of Foix and thebishop ofLa Seu d'Urgell agreed to share sovereignty over the landlocked country. The principality was briefly annexed in 1396 and again in 1512–1513 by theCrown of Aragon. The first female prince to rule Andorra wasIsabella, Countess of Foix (1398–1413). After the title of the count of Foix had been passed to thekings of Navarre, and after Henry of Navarre had becomeHenry IV of France, an edict was issued in 1607 which established the Frenchhead of state as the legal successor to the count of Foix in regard to the paréage. Andorra was briefly annexed for a third time by theFirst French Empire together withCatalonia in 1812–1813. After the Empire's demise, Andorra became independent again.[12]
Belgium has been a kingdom since 21 July 1831 without interruption, after it became independent from theUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands withLeopold I as its first king. Whilein a referendum held on 12 March 1950, 57.68 percent of the Belgians voted in favour of allowingLeopold III, whose conduct during World War II had been considered questionable and who had been accused of treason, to return to the throne; due to civil unrest, he opted to abdicate in favour of his sonBaudouin on 16 July 1951.[13]
InDenmark, the monarchy goes back to thelegendary kings before the 10th century and the Danish monarchy is the oldest in Europe (with the first attested historical king beingOngendus around the year 710). Currently, about 80 percent support keeping the monarchy.[14]
Liechtenstein formally came into existence on 23 January 1719, whenCharles VI, Holy Roman Emperor decreed thelordship of Schellenberg and thecountship of Vaduz united and raised to the dignity of aprincipality. Liechtenstein was a part of theHoly Roman Empire until theTreaty of Pressburg was signed on 26 December 1805; this marked Liechtenstein's formal independence, though it was a member of theConfederation of the Rhine and theGerman Confederation afterwards. While Liechtenstein was still closely aligned withAustria-Hungary until World War I, it realigned its politics and its customs and monetary institutions withSwitzerland instead.[15] Having been a constitutional monarchy since 1921,Hans-Adam II demanded more influence in Liechtenstein's politics in the early 21st century, which he was granted in a referendum held on 16 March 2003, effectively making Liechtenstein a semi-constitutional monarchy again. However, technically speaking, Liechtenstein's monarchy remains fully constitutional, and the transition was merely from aparliamentary system to asemi-presidential system, and the constitutional changes also provide for the possibility of a referendum to abolish the monarchy entirely.[16]
Luxembourg has been an independentgrand duchy since 9 June 1815. Originally, Luxembourg was inpersonal union with theUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands and theKingdom of the Netherlands from 16 March 1815 until 23 November 1890. WhileWilhelmina succeededWillem III in the Netherlands, this was not possible in Luxembourg due to the order of succession being based onSalic law at that time; he was succeeded instead byAdolphe.In a referendum held on 28 September 1919, 80.34 percent voted in favour of keeping the monarchy.[17]
Monaco has been ruled by theHouse of Grimaldi since 1297. From 1793 until 1814, Monaco was under French control; theCongress of Vienna designated Monaco as being a protectorate of theKingdom of Sardinia from 1815 until 1860, when theTreaty of Turin ceded the surrounding counties ofNice andSavoy to France.Menton andRoquebrune-Cap-Martin, part of Monaco until the mid-19th century before seceding in hopes of being annexed by Sardinia, were ceded to France in exchange for 4,000,000French francs with theFranco-Monegasque Treaty in 1861, which also formally guaranteed Monaco its independence.[18] Until 2002, Monaco would have become part of France had the house of Grimaldi ever died out; in a treaty signed that year, the two nations agreed that Monaco would remain independent even in such a case.
Though while not using thetitle of king until 1815, theDutch Royal House has been an intricate part of the politics of theLow Countries since medieval times. In 1566, thestadtholderWilliam of Orange became the main leader of theDutch revolt against theSpanish Habsburgs that set off theEighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of theUnited Provinces in 1581. He was born in theHouse of Nassau asCount of Nassau-Dillenburg. He becamePrince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branchHouse of Orange-Nassau.
His descendants became de factoheads of state of theDutch Republic during the 16th to 18th centuries, which was an effectively hereditary role. For the last half century of its existence, it became an officially hereditary role and thus a monarchy (though maintaining republican pretense) underPrince William IV. His son,Prince William V, was the laststadtholder of the republic, whose own son,King William I, became the first king of theUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was established on 16 March 1815 after theNapoleonic Wars. With the independence of Belgium on 21 July 1831, the Netherlands formally became theKingdom of the Netherlands.
Norway wasunited and thusestablished for the first time in 872, as a kingdom. As a result of the unification of theNorwegian petty kingdoms, which traces the monarchs even further back in time, both legitimate and semi–legendary kings. It is thus one of the oldest monarchies in the world, along with the Swedish and Danish ones. Norway was part of theKalmar Union from 1397 until 1524, then part ofDenmark–Norway from 1536 until 1814, and finally an autonomous part of theUnion between Sweden and Norway from 1814 until 1905. Norway becamecompletely independent again on 7 June 1905. Support for establishing a republic lies around 20 percent.[19]
Spain came into existence as a single, united kingdom underCharles I of Spain on 23 January 1516. The monarchy was briefly abolished by theFirst Spanish Republic from 11 February 1873 until 29 December 1874. The monarchy was abolished again on 14 April 1931, first by theSecond Spanish Republic – which lasted until 1 April 1939 – and subsequently by the dictatorship ofFrancisco Franco, who ruled until his death on 20 November 1975. Monarchy was restored on 22 November 1975 underJuan Carlos I, who was also the monarch until his abdication in 2014.The 1978 constitution confirms the title of the monarch is theKing of Spain, but that he may also use other titles historically associated with the Crown,[20] including the kingdoms ofCastile andLeón,Aragon, theTwo Sicilies,Jerusalem,Navarre,Granada,Seville,Toledo,Valencia,Galicia,Sardinia,Córdoba,Corsica, etc.
Data from 2006 suggested that only 25 percent of Spaniards were in favour of establishing a republic;[21] however, the numbers have increased since Juan Carlos I abdicated.[22]
Sweden’s monarchy goes back to thesemilegendary kings before the 10th century. The current royal family, theHouse of Bernadotte, has reigned since 1818.
The monarchy of the United Kingdom can be defined to have started either with theKingdoms of England (871) andScotland (843), with theUnion of the Crowns on 24 March 1603, or with theActs of Union of 1 May 1707. It was briefly interrupted by theEnglish Interregnum, with theCommonwealth of England existing in its stead from 30 January 1649 until 15 December 1653 and from 26 May 1659 until 25 May 1660 andthe Protectorate taking its place from 16 December 1653 until 25 May 1659.
Support forestablishing a republic instead of a monarchy was around 18 percent in the United Kingdom in 2006, while a majority thinks that there will still be a monarchy in the United Kingdom in ten years' time, public opinion is rather uncertain about a monarchy still existing in fifty years and a clear majority believes that the monarchy will no longer exist a century after the poll.[23] Public opinion is, however, certain that the monarchy will still exist in thirty years.
The monarch of the United Kingdom is also the monarch of the 14 otherCommonwealth realms, none of which are in Europe. Some of these realms have significant levels ofsupport for republicanism.[24]
Differently from theHoly See, in existence for almost two thousand years, theVatican City was not a sovereign state until the 20th century. In the 19th century the annexation of the Papal States by the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the subsequent establishment of theKingdom of Italy, was not recognized by the Vatican. However, Italy and the Vatican recognized each other in theLateran treaty of 1929.[25] The monarch of the Vatican City State is the pope.
_in_European_monarchies.png)
Thesuccession order is determined byprimogeniture in most European monarchies. Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom[26] now adhere to absolute primogeniture, whereby the eldest child inherits the throne, regardless of gender; Monaco and Spain have the older system ofmale-preference primogeniture, while Liechtenstein usesagnatic primogeniture (see below). In 1990, Norway granted absolute primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. This was not, however, done retroactively (as, for example, Sweden had done in 1980), meaning thatHaakon, Crown Prince of Norway continues to take precedence over his older sister.
There are plans to change to absolute primogeniture in Spain[27] through a rather complicated process, as the change entails aconstitutional amendment. Two successiveparliaments will have to pass the law by atwo-thirds majority and then put it to a referendum. As parliament has to be dissolved andnew elections have to be called after the constitutional amendment is passed for the first time, thenPrime Minister of SpainJosé Luis Rodríguez Zapatero indicated he would wait until the end of his first term in 2008 before passing the law,[28] although this deadline passed without the referendum being called. The amendment enjoys strong public support.[29]
To change the order ofsuccession to the British throne, all thesovereign states with the King as head of state—collectively known asCommonwealth realms—must agree. In the United Kingdom, theSuccession to the Crown Act 2013 was enacted, and after legislation in some other realms, the changes came into effect across all realms simultaneously on 26 March 2015.
Liechtenstein uses agnatic primogeniture (aka Salic law), which completely excludes women from the order of succession. It was criticised for this by a United Nations committee for this perceivedgender equality issue in November 2007.[30]
Luxembourg used agnatic-cognatic primogeniture until 20 June 2011, when absolute primogeniture was introduced.[31]
The co-princes ofAndorra are thepresident of the French Republic, who is elected by the French people, and the bishop of La Seu d'Urgell, who is appointed by the pope.
The absolute monarch ofVatican City, the pope, iselected by theCollege of Cardinals.
One issue that occasionally rises is whether the monarchies are too expensive when compared to republics, or whether particular monarchies are more expensive than others, to maintain. This comparison may be hard to draw, since financial administration may differ radically from country to country, and not all profits and costs are publicly known, and because of different arrangements regarding theprivate property of the monarch. In the UK, theCrown Estate has a special legal status making it neither government property nor the private property of the monarch. Revenues from these hereditary possessions have been placed at the disposition of the British government (thus proceeding directly to theTreasury) by every monarch since the accession ofGeorge III in 1760; the revenues of GBP 304.1 million (fiscal year of 2015/16) far exceed theexpenses of the British royal family in this sense resulting in a "negative cost" of the British monarchy.
In 2016, Dutch newspaperde Volkskrant published an overview of the annual expenditure (excluding security expenses) of all European royal houses (not countingLuxembourg and the four monarchicalEuropean microstates).
| Country | Annual costs (royal house) | Annual salary (monarch) | Does monarch pay taxes? | Annual costs (royal house, per taxpayer) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Belgium | €36 million | €11.5 million | Yes | €3.15 |
 Denmark | €13 million | €10 million | Only inheritance tax and property tax | €2.30 |
| Netherlands | €41 million | €0.9 million | No | €2.40 |
| Norway | €51 million | €1.2 million | No | €9.70 |
| Spain | €8 million | €0.2 million | Yes | €0.16 |
 Sweden | €13 million | €6.7 million | Yes | €1.30 |
 United Kingdom | €45 million | €15.6 million | Yes | €0.70 |
Source:de Volkskrant (2016), based on the royal houses' websites of the seven monarchies, professor Herman Matthijs' 2013 study,[32] the Dutch National Budget 2017, and ABCTOPConsult.[33]
In 2013, professor Herman Matthijs fromGhent University calculated the costs of the seven EU monarchies plus Norway, and compared them to the EU's two most populous republics, France and Germany. His four main conclusions were:
He stressed that the financial administration's transparency differs enormously between countries; especially the non-transparent monarchies may be much more expensive than is publicly known. This means comparing them to republics, especially the very transparent administration of France where citizens can know exactly what they pay for, may be unfair. In a 2015 interview withNRC Handelsblad, Matthijs commented that the then-known €7.7 million allotted to the royal house in Spain's national budget was 'unbelievable': "I can't find out more, but I understand from the media that the total expenses of the Spanish house may be as much as 80 million."[34]
| Country | Form of government | Official annual costs | Transparency |
|---|---|---|---|
| Belgium | Monarchy | €13.9 million | Not transparent |
| Denmark | Monarchy | €13.2 million | Not transparent |
| France | Republic | €106.2 million | Very transparent |
 Germany | Republic | €25.6 million | Relatively transparent |
 Luxembourg | Monarchy | €9.3 million | Not transparent |
| Netherlands | Monarchy | €39.9 million | Relatively transparent |
| Norway | Monarchy | €42.7 million | Relatively transparent |
| Spain | Monarchy | €7.9 million | Not transparent |
| Sweden | Monarchy | €15.1 million | Not transparent |
| United Kingdom | Monarchy | €38.0 million | Poorly transparent |
| Source: Herman Matthijs, "De kosten van een staatshoofd in West-Europa" (2013).[32] | |||
Calls for the abolition of Europe's monarchies were widespread since the development ofrepublicanism in the 17th to 18th centuries during theEnlightenment. During theFrench Revolution, theAncien Régime in France wasabolished, and in all territories theFrench First Republic conquered during the followingCoalition Wars,sister republics were proclaimed. However, afterNapoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804, all of these (except Switzerland) were converted back to monarchies headed by his relatives. The post-NapoleonicEuropean Restoration reaffirmed the monarchical balance of power on the continent.
In subsequent decades, republicanism would regain lost ground with the rise of liberalism, nationalism, and later socialism. TheRevolutions of 1848 were largely inspired by republicanism. Most of Europe's monarchies were abolished either during or following World War I or World War II, and the remaining monarchies were transformed intoconstitutional monarchies.
Republican movements in Europe remain active up to present, though their political clout is limited in most European monarchies. The most prominent organisations campaigning to eliminate one or more of Europe's remaining monarchies and/or to liquidate assets reserved for reigning families are affiliated with theAlliance of European Republican Movements, but there are smaller independent initiatives as well, such as Hetis2013 in the Netherlands.[35][36] Also, some political parties (e.g.Podemos in Spain) have stepped up and called for nationalreferendums to abolish monarchies.[37][38]
The political influence ofmonarchism in former European monarchies is very limited.
There are several monarchist parties in France, most notably theAction Française (established 1899) andAlliance Royale (established 2001).Monarchist parties also existin the Czech Republic (1991),in Greece (2010),in Germany (1959),in Italy (1972),in Poland (1988) andin Russia (2012).
Otto von Habsburg renounced all pretense to the Habsburg titles in 1958, and monarchism in Austria has next to no political influence; a German monarchist organisation calledTradition und Leben has been in existence since 1959.Monarchism in Bavaria has had more significant support, includingFranz Josef Strauss, minister-president of Bavaria from 1978 to 1988.
Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia is a proponent of re-creating aconstitutional monarchy in Serbia and sees himself as the rightful king. He believes that monarchy could give Serbia "stability, continuity and unity".[39] A number of political parties and organizations support a constitutional parliamentary monarchy in Serbia. TheSerbian Orthodox Church has openly supported the restoration of the monarchy.[40][41] The assassinated former Serbian Prime MinisterZoran Đinđić was often seen in the company of the prince and his family, supporting their campaigns and projects, although his Democratic Party never publicly embraced monarchy. In 2011 an onlineopen access poll by Serbianmiddle-markettabloid newspaperBlic showed that 64% of Serbians support restoring the monarchy.[42] Another poll in May 2013 had 39% of Serbians supporting the monarchy, with 32% against it.[43] On 27 July 2015, newspaper Blic published a poll "Da li Srbija treba da bude monarhija?" ("Should Serbia be a monarchy?"); 49.8% respondents expressed support in a reconstitution of monarchy, 44.6% were opposed and 5.5% were indifferent.[44] In 2017 anNGO, theKingdom of Serbia Association, announced that in 2016 they had collected over 123,000 signatures of support for a referendum on restoring the monarchy, short of the 150,000 needed to force a constitutional amendment.[45]
According to a 2007 opinion poll conducted at the request of the Romanian royal family, only 14% of Romanians were in favour of the restoration of the monarchy.[46] Another 2008 poll found that only 16% of Romanians are monarchists.[47] In December 2017, on the backdrop of the increased capital of trust in the Royal House of Romania, re-emerging with the death of King Michael, the executive chairman of the ruling Social Democratic Party Nicolae Bădălau said that one could organize a referendum on the transition to the monarchical ruling form, arguing that "it is not a bad thing, considering that the countries that have the monarchs are developed countries", being a project of the future.[48]
Media related toMonarchies of Europe at Wikimedia Commons
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