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.jpg) Molokan men, 1870s | |
| Founder | |
|---|---|
| Semyon Uklein (1733–1809) | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Russia: 50,000–100,000 Ukraine: 10,000–20,000 Armenia: 10,000–20,000 Georgia: 5,000–15,000 United States: 10,000 Azerbaijan: 5,000–10,000 Mexico: 2,000 Turkey: 1,000(ancestry)[1] | |
| Religions | |
| Christianity (Spiritual Christianity) | |
| Scriptures | |
| Bible | |
| Languages | |
| Russian Erzyan[2] | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Russians Mordovians[2] | |
| Website | |
| сдхм molokane |
TheMolokans (Russian:молокан,IPA:[məlɐˈkan] orмолоканин, "dairy-eater") are a RussianSpiritual Christian sect that evolved fromEastern Orthodoxy in theEast Slavic lands. Their traditions, especiallydairy consumption during Christian fasts, did not conform to those of theRussian Orthodox Church, and they were regarded as heretics (sektanty). The termMolokan is anexonym used by theirOrthodox neighbors. Members tend to identify themselves asSpiritual Christians (духовные христиане,dukhovnye khristiane).
The specific beliefs and practices varied sharply between the various sects of Molokans. Some built chapels for worship, kept sacraments, and revered saints and icons, while others (like theIkonobortsy, "icon-wrestlers") discarded these practices in the pursuit ofindividual approaches to scripture. In general, they rejected the institutionalized formalism of Orthodoxy and denominations with similar doctrines in favor of more emphasis on"Original Christianity" as they understood it. They emphasizedspirituality and spiritual practice; such sacramental practices as water baptism have been permitted only as tangible signs and symbols of more important spiritual truths.
Similar toPresbyterians among Protestants, and considered heretical by the Orthodox Church, they elect acouncil of dominantelders who preserve a sort ofapostolic succession in their view. Molokans had some practices similar to the EuropeanQuakers andMennonites, such aspacifism, communal organization, spiritual meetings, and sub-groupings, but they arose in Russia together with theDoukhobors and Sabbatarians (also known asSubbotniks) and similar Spiritual Christian movements ofDuhovnye Kristyanye and Ikonobortsy. They migrated into central Russia and Ukraine around the same time. As such, the Molokans have been compared to certain kinds of Protestants (such as Anabaptists and Baptists) because they have multiple similar aspects since they reject the Orthodox priesthood and icons, have their own presbyters, hold the Bible as their main guide and interpret the sacraments "spiritually". They are thus in many ways similar toAnabaptist andQuaker Christians.[3][4][5][6][7]
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There are approximately 200fasting days —especially theGreat Fast (Lent)— when drinking milk was prohibited by Christian Orthodox ecclesiastical authorities. The practice of milk-drinking during these fasts was first sanctioned by theNestorian Church in the 11th century in order to accommodate the conversion of some 200,000Turkic Christians, who lived on meat and milk, to Nestorian Christianity.[8]
Two theories emerge regarding the formation of the milk-drinking practice during Lent:
The first one suggests that theKeraite Khan, Markus Buyruk Khan (formerlySadiq Khan,[9] prior to Christian conversion), had converted to Nestorian Christianity along with around 200,000 of his Turco-Mongolic nomadic tribespeople in 1007 CE. The Keraite people were one of the five dominant Turco-Mongol tribes of the Tatar confederation prior to Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan united the Tatar tribes into the Mongol Empire. The Keraite resided upon the Orkhon Steppes, south of Lake Baikal and north of the Gobi Desert, also referred to as the Altai-Sayan region. The NestorianMetropolitan, upon the conversion of the Turco-mongolic people, asked the Patriarch John the VI,[10] also known asPrester John,[11] what the appropriate fast for lent should be for the new converts and it was decreed that the converts should abstain from meat eating and instead of drinking "soured" milk should consume "sweet" milk. Meat and fermented horse milk were staples of the Turco-Mongolic diet prior to the conversion to Christianity and instead of eliminating a long-held tradition of the nomadic people it was Christianized. Soured milk refers to fermented milk and sweet milk refers to fresh milk.[12]
Arriving inthe Rus' lands with the 13th century Tatar (Mongolian) invasion[13] ofBatu andMöngke, the practice was adopted by other Christian groups, who had pastoral communities on the Eurasian plains.
The second theory proposes thatKing David the IV of Georgia converted 40,000Cuman-Kipchak tribal families to Christianity and resettled them in Georgia between 1118-1120 CE. King David the IV assimilated these northern Turkic tribes because he was at war with the Muslim Seljuk Turks to the South and desired to reform his army. Each Kipchak family was required to provide one soldier with a horse and weapons. Though David the IV is not reported as being a religious adherent he was a promoter ofChristian culture.
The Cumans, Kipchaks,Tatars, Mongolians, and Bashkirs (who descend from Kipchaks) all have the tradition of making fermented milk products. The Cumans call itkumis, Mongolians call itairag,[14] Tatars call itazegay, and the Baskir call itazekay.[15] This lends itself to the possibility of the second theory, as well as the first.
100 families of the original Molokan Karaits were settled in Halychyna (specifically Lviv) by hostage arrangement between Daniel of Galicia and Batu Khan in 1246 CE.[16]
TheJudaizers preceded the modern day Molokans. Although they are sometimes also called "Molokans", they constitute an independent movement. Their leaderMatvei Semyonovich Dalmatov (Матвей Семёнович Далматов) was tortured to death in a monastery prison bybreaking wheel.
In 1428Crimea became independent and supported the original Molokan-Subbotniks, theCrimean Karaites (Qara-Tatars / Karaylar), who had always played an important role in Mongol politics.[17] The linguistically dominant Church of the East Karait-Tatars, who had similar origins to the Khavars, became “Karaimstvuiuschie” (or Molokan Karaits).
The first recorded use of the term "Molokan" appears in the 1670s, in reference to a group of people who had the practice of not fasting as well as eating dairy products during the 200 fasting days stipulated by the Orthodox Church. In Russian,Moloko means "milk", and thus this came to be the name for these particular Christians. Nonetheless, these were "Spiritual Christians" who were not directly related to the group later known as "Molokans".
The "Molokans" that are known today by that name, split in 1779 and 1780 from theDoukhobors because they thought that the Doukhobors neglected the Bible; in their belief, God had placed the Word directly into their hearts. The Molokans, however, held the written Bible in the highest regard. The founder of the Molokans,Semyon Matveevich Uklein (1733-1809), was a son-in-law of the Doukhobor leaderIlarion Poberokhin (1720-1792) as explained by O. Beznosova: "Soon (approximately in 1779-1780) a group broke away from Pobirohin's disciples. It was led by his son-in-law Semyon Uklein, who did not share the mystical spirit and self-deification of the former leader and defended the need for reliance on the Gospel texts in the organization of church life (Margaritov, 1914). This group (called "Molokans") became a "rational" direction of Spiritual Christianity, as opposed to the "mystics" - "christoverchestvo" adherents, "Doukhobors" and "skoptsy"."[18]
Uklein's Molokans from Tambov energetically proselytized in settlements along theVolga River and Russia's south-eastern frontier, spreading the Molokan faith in the provinces ofOrenburg,Saratov, andAstrakhan; Uklein would further continue organizing congregations until his death in 1809.
From the intervention of CountNikolay Zubov in 1795, Molokans (бесшапочники) were tolerated underCatherine the Great but constrained by strict rules imposed upon them intended to curb community growth.[19] Those who ignored the restrictions were punished inTsarist Russia asheretics.[20] Molokan evangelists and missionaries suffered imprisonment, banishment and other forms of punishment. Prohibited from winning converts,[21] the Molokans were forced intoendogamy. The government's policy was to send the Molokans away from the center of Russia into the Caucasus (1833), and other outlying areas to prevent their having influence on other peasants; they were sent toArmenia,Azerbaijan (1834),Ukraine (1830s), centralAsia, andSiberia, where many communities have survived into the present.
It is said that in 1900, despite the persecutions by the Tsarist government and Orthodox Church, there could have been about a half-million Spiritual Christians in the Russian empire. These figures appear, however, to be vastly exaggerated. In 1912, there were only 133,935Molokane and 4,844Pryguny counted in Russia (census of the Department of Spiritual Affairs; seeGlenn Dynner: "Holy Dissent: Jewish and Christian Mystics in Eastern Europe", 2011).
Fewer than one thousandMolokane fled Russia in the early 1900s (mostly 1905-1912), many of whom settled near other non-Orthodox immigrants from Russia in an ethnicenclave on and nearPotrero Hill,San Francisco, California, where they built a prayer hall in 1929. A second prayer hall was established nearSheridan, California to serve those scattered in Northern California. There has been a population of Molokans in Whittier, Southern California. As of 2022, there is still a church called ‘New United Molokan Church.’[22] Though some Spiritual Christian faith groups fled Russia in the early 1900s to avoid the military draft, all eligibleMolokan boys registered for theSelective Service Act of 1917, but were disqualified as aliens who did not speak English. During World War II, 136 eligible AmericanMolokan boys enlisted during World War II, and two wereconscientious objectors.[23]
Being prohibited from winning converts under the laws of the Russian Empire, they adoptedendogamy and were classified as an ethnic group under the Bolsheviks.
From 1904 through the 1920s, many different faith tribes in the Caucasus immigrated to North America under the guise of "Molokan". In 1899, when about a third of allDukhobortsty left the Caucasus to central Canada, the Canadian government also gave permission for "Molokans" to migrate and get the same privileges (land, communal, non-military). To take advantage of this generous privilege, many different faith tribes ofspiritual Christians in the Caucasus all claimed to be "Molokan" while leaving Russia for Canada. Most all were diverted from Canada to Los Angeles byPeter Demens, where they clashed, never uniting. Many descendants of those different tribes still claim the covetedMolokan heritage label which perpetuates confusion.[24]
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The Russian term "constant" (invariable, steadfast, unchanged, original:postoyanniye :постоянние) applied to theMolokans has been used with two different intentions. By originalMolokans who either refused to be evangelized by Protestant denominations or insisted that they will retain their faith unchanged by the "Jumper" revivalist movement in the 1830s. They originally constituted the by far largest segment of Molokanism. In 1833, aschism took place within the Molokan faith. This event was framed by collective cataclysms of disease, famine, and persecution.[25][26] A portion of the Molokans during this time began to experience a charismatic outpouring of the Holy Spirit,[27] similar to laterPentecostal faiths. Eventually this sect evolved into what is known today as the "Molokan Jumpers".[28] The old Molokans were termedConstants (Postoyaniye), and the newly evolved "Molokans jumpers" (Pryguny), also calledSkakuny (leapers). The MolokanJumpers believed they were visited by a manifestation of the Holy Spirit, and this new smaller Molokan sect began a revival with intense zeal, reporting miracles that purportedly rivaled those of Christ's apostles.
The "Constant" Molokan sect condemned the new sect to authorities, resulting in betrayals and imprisonment for many of the Molokan Jumpers. Some of these Molokan Jumpers called themselves "New Israelites", when onePrygun leaderMaxim Rudomyotkin in Nikitino, Erivan Guberniya was announced to be the "King of the Spirits" in 1853. The group, also known as Maximists", consideredEfim Gerasimovich Klubnikin (1842-1915) in Romanovka, Kars oblast, a divinely inspired 12-year-old boy prophet. He prophesied a "coming time that would be unbearable and that the time to leave Russia was now." During the early 20th century under his leadership, about 2,000Pryguny emigrated to theUnited States, first settling on the east side ofLos Angeles. Most seeking rural isolation moved to Baja Mexico, then Arizona, Central California, and some other parts of the West Coast and Canada. Other Jumpers received a land grant from theMexican government and settled in theGuadalupe Valley inBaja California,Mexico.
In Los Angeles, a small number of the Molokan Jumpers joined the development of the American Revival called "thePentecostalAzusa Street Revival." The founder ofThe Full Gospel Business Men's Association associates thisPentecostalRevival to a child prophet of the Molokan Jumpers, E.G. Klubnikin.
About 20,000 people identify as Molokans, at least ethnically, in the former Soviet Union. There are approximately 200 Molokan churches, 150 of them in Russia andAzerbaijan. They also lived in theNorth Caucasus,Southern Ukraine,Armenia, andCentral Asia, where their ancestors had been exiled long ago.
Approximately 25,000 Molokans reside in the United States, of whom about 5,000 "ethnically" identify as "Molokans". The majority live in or nearLos Angeles, particularly inEast Los Angeles,Boyle Heights, andCommerce.[29]
During the 1960s other Molokans settled in southernAlaska andAustralia. Molokans are said to be numerous inAustralia. The majority are inSouth Australia, with a number of families inWestern Australia and a small group residing inQueensland. Over 1,000 reside in Canada in the province ofBritish Columbia and hundreds more inAlberta, keeping their traditional communal lifestyle. A group of Molokan families are also living inLatin America in the Guadalupe Valley,Mexico and in the country ofUruguay.
A small Molokan community was located in the eastern province ofKars,Turkey. They are known asKars Molokans. Most of the community returned to Russia years ago; in the 21st century only one family of Molokans is left in Kars.[30]
The Molokans have been compared to theAnabaptists that originated through theRadical Reformation and to theQuakers.[31] They have a protestant-like view of the authority of scripture, however interpreting the bible allegorically or "spiritually", they see the sacraments "spiritually", reject the use of icons, images of the cross and Church hierarchy along with venerating the saints.[32][5][6][7][4] The Molokans advocate for pacifism, congregate in their own homes, do not drink or smoke, oppose contraception and modern technology.[33][34]
The Molokans follow the Old Testament laws, refusing to eat Pork, shellfish or unclean foods, they additionally refused to obey Orthodox mandates on fasting.[35]
The Molokans from Tambov who proselytized in settlements along the Volga River and in the Orenburg, Saratov and Astrakhan provinces were mostly of Slavic descent.Tambov Oblast had been completely settled by Slavic people by the 17th century. The regions they proselytized in all had or still have high populations of Islamic adherents and people of 'Tatar' or Turkic ancestry.
Between the 1600s and late 1800s, intermarriage between ethnic Russians and Tatars (Tatar at this point meaning anyone of Turkic background) was common. For a Tatar, marrying a Russian was a way to increase social status or class.[36] Muslim Tatars who converted to Christianity were exempted from taxes and gained other privileges.
Molokans as partially an admixture of Slavic and Turkic genetics is also supported by other accounts. Molokans complicated the work of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the conversion of Tatar or Turkic Muslims, as Molokans taught that religious iconography was a sin. Molokans are well-known iconoclasts, which was heresy to the Orthodox Church. Muslims, also being iconoclasts, found a draw to the Molokan faith as it preserved some Islamic traditions.[37] Muslim converts in Russia were also well known to convert to Christianity to receive the benefits of conversion, only to convert back to Islam later. Molokans, being constrained to endogamy and marrying within their religion, would marry converts indiscriminate of their genetic background.
Roughly 3,500 Molokans left Russia between 1901 and 1911 in search of religious freedom, escaping the persecution inflicted upon them by the Russian Orthodox Church and state. Starting around the early 1900s, many Molokans settled in thePotrero Hill neighborhood of San Francisco, California.[38] ThePotrero Hill Neighborhood House was built in 1922 by the California Synodical Society of Home Mission, Inc. and thePresbyterian Church, in order to support this newfound community, provided adult education classes, a community center, and a kindergarten.[39][40][41] By the time of the 1970s, the Potrero Hill community was still in existence, but other smaller groups of the Molokans had become assimilated into the more broad Russian-American community.
Today, Molokans in the United States are largely assimilated into the general mainstay of American culture. They do however work to preserve the uniqueness of their own traditions and culture, such as through the usage of Russian in their church services, community dinners (referred to as 'obed'), and a shared adherence to diet based upon their religious beliefs.[42]
Upon their arrival in the USA, the Molokans and their religious observances seemed very strange to Americans. The Molokan colonies and communities were labeled "cults" and Molokans were harassed by Americans with the creation of the derogatory term "Molokan Slackers". The Molokans were given this moniker primarily because they did not want to serve inWorld War I, as they wereconscientious objectors.[43]
On June 8, 1917, theArizona Republic reported that the Molokan community in Glendale, Arizona, refused to register under theselective service act of 1917. The likely result would be the arrest of Molokan men who refused to sign the order. Molokans claimed that their religious precepts forbade them from signing such an agreement. The Czars had forced them into the military, and that is why they fled Russia for the United States. The Molokans feared that history would repeat itself in America.[44]
On August 9, 1917,The Daily Missoulian reported that 35 Molokans were arrested and given sentences of one year each for disobeying the Selective Service Act of 1917. Thirty-three other Molokans were arrested for creating a disturbance outside of the jail house; women struck police with their umbrellas and a knife-wielding man had to be overpowered. After the 35 men were sentenced, the Molokans in the courtroom broke out into ecstatic singing and dancing and some participants were slightly injured while being subdued.[45]
Molokans are known for having different spellings of last names within the same immediate family for a few reasons. When Molokans arrived in the United States, some family names were horribly misspelled by immigration officials who could not read Cyrillic—for example, "Сусоев" became "Sessoyeff," which is unpronounceable in English. Also, like members of other pacifist communities, some Molokans changed the spelling of their names to avoid deportation. Many chose to use American versions of their names. So "Vasilli Bukroff" becomes "Bill" or "William Bukroff" or "Ivan Metchikoff" will become "John Mitchell" and "Dunya Tikunov" will be "Julie Tyler". They also sometimes use "first names" that are not their legal names and are based on nicknames from childhood within the church that stuck with people as adults. For example, "Hazel Valov" became known as "Percy Valov", for being very "persistent". Another naming custom that can confuse those who are unfamiliar with the community was practiced by Molokans who settled in the Guadalupe Valley, Mexico. Many settlers adopted the Mexican versions of their names, so Rodion Pavlov became "Rodolfo Pabloff," and they named their children following the Mexican format. Accordingly, one will see what would have been a Russian name like "Ivan Pavilovich Pabloff" (Ivan son of Pavil (Paul) (Pavlov)), whose mother's maiden name is "Samarin," become "Juan Pablo Pabloff de Samarin" or "Juan Samarin Pabloff". In all these instances, tracing family history can be very difficult. Otherwise, they adhere to the common naming practices. A lot can be learned from a Russian headstone which will commonly go back to the use of the Russian naming protocol regardless of what name the individual used while alive. If translated correctly, one should learn the names of an individual's father and grandfather from a male's headstone. If it is displayed in English at the bottom it most likely will not contain the information.[citation needed]
In Russia, theMolokane historically maintained close relations withBaptists.[46]
Molokans are sometimes compared to the Amish or Mennonites in the United States for their pacificism.
{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help){{cite book}}:Missing or empty|title= (help){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Baptists maintained close relations with both Mennonites and Molokans throughout the history of the Baptist Union.
