TheModerna COVID‑19 vaccine, sold under the brand nameSpikevax among others, is aCOVID-19 vaccine developed by the American companyModerna, the United StatesNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), and theBiomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA). Depending on the jurisdiction, it is authorized for use in humans aged six months,[42] twelve years, or eighteen years and older. The Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine provides protection againstCOVID-19, which is caused by infection by theSARS-CoV-2 virus.[3][2][23][15] In May 2025, a different version of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, with the trade nameMnexspike (mRNA-1283), was approved for medical use in the United States.[43][44][45]
Spikevax is designed to be administered in two or three 0.5-mL doses given byintramuscular injection, primarily into the deltoid muscle, at an interval of at least 28 days apart.[46][47][48][49] TheWorld Health Organization advises an eight-week interval between doses to optimize efficacy. Additional booster doses are approved in some regions to maintain immunity. Clinical trials and real-world data have demonstrated the vaccine's high efficacy, with significant effectiveness observed two weeks post-administration of the second dose, offering 94% protection against Covid and robust defense against severe cases. The vaccine's efficacy spans various demographics, including age, sex, and those with high-risk medical conditions.
Spikevax is anmRNA vaccine composed ofnucleoside-modified mRNA (modRNA) encoding aspike protein of SARS-CoV-2, which is encapsulated inlipid nanoparticles.[50] In August and September 2022, bivalent versions of the vaccine (Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine, Bivalent) containing elasomeran/elasomeran 0-omicron (Spikevax Bivalent Zero/Omicron)[51] were authorized for use as booster doses in individuals aged 18 or older in the United Kingdom,[52][53] Switzerland,[54] Australia,[55] Canada,[56][57] the European Union,[2] and the United States.[58][59][60][61][62][63] The second component of the version of the bivalent vaccine used in the United States[64] is based on theOmicron BA.4/BA.5 variant,[58] while the second component of the bivalent vaccine version used in other countries is based on theOmicron BA.1 variant.[2][51][53][52][57] The vaccine's effectiveness against variants has been extensively studied, indicating varying degrees of protection. For instance, during the prevalence of the Delta variant, effectiveness against infection slightly decreased over time. The vaccine's longevity and continuous protection are under study, with ongoing research focusing on its duration of effectiveness, which remains partially undetermined as of the latest updates.
The safety profile of the vaccine is favorable, with common side effects including injection site pain, fatigue, and headaches. Severe reactions likeanaphylaxis are exceedingly rare. Concerns regardingmyocarditis, have been identified but are typically mild and manageable. The vaccine's formulation utilizes mRNA technology, encapsulated within lipid nanoparticles to ensure cellular uptake and immune system response.
Medical uses
The Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine is used to provide protection against infection by theSARS‑CoV‑2 virus in order to prevent COVID‑19.[3][2]
A third, fourth, or fifth dose can be added in some countries.[48][49][66]
Efficacy
Cumulative Incidence Curves for the First COVID‑19 Occurrence (Moderna mRNA-1273 vaccine)
Evidence ofvaccine efficacy starts about two weeks after the first dose.[67][68] High efficacy is achieved with full immunization, two weeks after the second dose, and was evaluated at 94.1%: at the end of the vaccine study that led to emergency authorization in the US, there were eleven cases of COVID‑19 in the vaccine group (out of 15,181 people) versus 185 cases in theplacebo group (15,170 people).[67] Moreover, there were zero cases of severe COVID‑19 in the vaccine group, versus eleven in the placebo group.[69] This efficacy has been described as "astonishing"[70] and "borderline historic"[71] for a respiratory virus vaccine, and it is similar to the efficacy of thePfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine.[72][73]
Efficacy estimates were similar across age groups, sexes, racial and ethnic groups, and participants with medical comorbidities associated with high risk of severe COVID‑19.[74] Only individuals aged 18 or older were studied. Studies are underway to gauge efficacy and safety in children aged 0–11 (KidCOVE) and 12–17 (TeenCOVE).[75]
A further study conducted by the USCenters for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) between December 2020, and March 2021, on nearly 4thousand health care personnel,first responders, and other essential and frontline workers concluded that under real-world conditions, mRNA vaccine effectiveness of full immunization (14 days or more after second dose) was 90% againstSARS-CoV-2 infections, regardless of symptoms, and vaccine effectiveness of partial immunization (14 days or more after first dose but before second dose) was 80%.[76]
The duration of protection provided by the vaccine is unknown as of April 2021[update],[50][77] and a two-year followup study is underway to determine the duration.[71]
Preliminary results from a phase III trial indicate that vaccine efficacy is durable, remaining at 93% six months after the second dose.[78]
Effectiveness
A vaccine is generally considered effective if the estimate is ≥50% with a >30% lower limit of the 95%confidence interval.[79] Effectiveness is generally expected to slowly decrease over time.[80]
In August 2021, results from a study suggested that the effectiveness against infection decreased from91% (81–96%) to66% (26–84%) when theDelta variant became predominant in the US, which may be due to unmeasured and residualconfounding related to a decline in vaccine effectiveness over time.[81]
Limited data are available on the safety of the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine during pregnancy.[84] The initial study excluded pregnant women or discontinued them from vaccination upon a positive pregnancy test.[67] Studies in animals found no safety concerns and clinical trials are underway to evaluate the safety and efficacy of COVID‑19 vaccines in pregnant women.[84] Real-world observations through the CDC v-safe tracking program have not uncovered unusual numbers of adverse events or outcomes of interest.[85] Based on the results of a preliminary study, the US CDC recommends that pregnant women get vaccinated with the COVID‑19 vaccine.[86][87]
"Moderna arm",[88] a non-serious skin reaction rarely seen ≈7 days after injection with the Moderna vaccine.
TheWorld Health Organization (WHO) stated that "the safety data supported a favorable safety profile" and that the vaccine's AE (adverse event) profile "did not suggest any specific safety concerns".[67] The most common adverse events were pain at the injection site, fatigue, headache,myalgia (muscle pain), andarthralgia (joint pain).[67]
The USCenters for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has reportedanaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction) in 2.5 cases per million doses administered and has recommended a 15-minute observation period after injection.[89] Delayed cutaneous reactions at injection sites resulting in rash-likeerythemas have also been observed in rare cases but are not considered serious or contraindications to subsequent vaccination.[90] The incidence rate for local adverse erythema is about 10.8%. In 1.9% of cases, redness may extend to a size of 100mm or greater.[91]
In June 2021, the US CDC confirmed thatmyocarditis orpericarditis occurs in about 13 of every 1 million young people, mostly male and over the age of 16, who received the Moderna or thePfizer–BioNTech vaccine.[92][93] Most affected individuals recover quickly with adequate treatment and rest.[94]
Additional side effects include extensive swelling of the vaccinated limb.[95]
Pharmacology
Moderna's technology uses anucleoside-modified messenger RNA (modRNA) compound codenamed mRNA-1273. The mRNA-1273 drug delivery system uses aPEGylatedlipidnanoparticle drug delivery (LNP) system.[96] Once the compound is inside a human cell, the mRNA links up with the cell'sendoplasmic reticulum. The mRNA-1273 is encoded to trigger the cell into making a specific protein using the cell's normal manufacturing process. The vaccine encodes a version of the spike protein with a modification called 2P, in which the protein includes two stabilizing mutations in which the original amino acids are replaced withprolines, developed by researchers at theUniversity of Texas at Austin and theNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases'Vaccine Research Center.[97][98][99] Once the protein is expelled from the cell, it is eventually detected by the immune system, which begins generating efficacious antibodies.
Chemistry
The vaccine contains the following ingredients:[3][91]
The active ingredient is an mRNA sequence containing a total of 4101 nucleotides that encodes the full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) glycoprotein,[100] with two mutations (K986P and V987P) designed to stabilize the pre-fusion conformation. The sequence is further optimized by:[101][102]
A putative sequence of the vaccine has been published on aforum for professional virologists, obtained by direct sequencing of residual vaccine material in used vials.[103]
An insulated shipping container with Moderna vaccine boxes ensconced by cold packsModerna vaccine being stored in a conventional medical freezer
Moderna is relying extensively oncontract manufacturing organizations to scale up its vaccine manufacturing process. The first step of the process—synthesis of DNAplasmids (to be used as a template for synthesis of mRNA)—has been handled by a contractor called Aldevron based inFargo, North Dakota.[104] For the remainder of the process, Moderna contracted withLonza Group to manufacture the vaccine at facilities inPortsmouth, New Hampshire in the United States, and inVisp in Switzerland, and purchased the necessary lipidexcipients from CordenPharma.[105] Besides CMOs, Moderna also manufactures the vaccine at its own production facility inNorwood, Massachusetts.[106] Another manufacturing site for the vaccines for the market outside the U.S. (since the end of 2021) is inGeleen in the Netherlands, produced by its manufacturing partnerLonza.[107] Earlier, Lonza did produce the vaccine for the EU, U.K. and Canada at its site in Switzerland only, but had to cut projected deliveries to the U.K. and Canada earlier in 2021 due to production issues.[108]
For the tasks of filling and packaging vials (fill and finish), Moderna entered into contracts withCatalent in the United States and Laboratorios Farmacéuticos Rovi in Spain.[105] In April 2021, Moderna expanded its agreement with Catalent to increase manufacturing output at the latter's plant inBloomington, Indiana. The expansion will allow Catalent to manufacture up to 400 vials per minute and fill an additional 80million vials per year.[109] Later that month, Moderna announced its plans to spend billions of dollars to boost production of its vaccines, potentially tripling the output in 2022, claiming as well that it would make no less than 800million doses in 2021. The increase in production is in part attributed to improvements made by the company in manufacturing methods.[110][111][112]
The Moderna news followed preliminary results from thePfizer-BioNTech vaccine candidate,BNT162b2, with Moderna demonstrating similar efficacy, but requiring storage at the temperature of a standard medical refrigerator of 2–8 °C (36–46 °F) for up to thirty days or −20 °C (−4 °F) for up to four months, whereas the Pfizer-BioNTech candidate requiresultracold freezer storage between −80 and −60 °C (−112 and −76 °F).[113][114] Low-income countries usually havecold chain capacity for only standard refrigerator storage, not ultracold freezer storage.[115][116] In February 2021, the restrictions on the Pfizer vaccine were relaxed when the USFood and Drug Administration (FDA) updated the emergency use authorization (EUA) to permit undiluted frozen vials of the vaccine to be transported and stored at between −25 and −15 °C (−13 and 5 °F) for up to two weeks before use.[91][117][118] The Moderna vaccine should not be stored at a temperature below −50 °C (−58 °F).[119]
In November 2020,Nature reported that "While it's possible that differences in LNP formulations or mRNA secondary structures could account for the thermostability differences [between Moderna and BioNtech], many experts suspect both vaccine products will ultimately prove to have similar storage requirements and shelf lives under various temperature conditions."[120]
History
In June 2025, theEuropean Medicines Agency announced that they are making data from the marketing authorization applications for COVID‑19 mRNA vaccinesComirnaty and Spikevax publicly available.[2][121]
Original version
In January 2020, Moderna announced development of anRNA vaccine, codenamed mRNA-1273, to induce immunity to SARS-CoV-2.[122][123][124]
The United States government provided $2.5billion in total funding for the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine (mRNA-1273).[127] Private donors also made contributions to the vaccine's development. TheDolly Parton COVID-19 Research Fund contributed $1million.[128]
In May 2020, Moderna began aphaseIIa clinical trial recruiting six hundred adult participants to assess safety and differences inantibody response to two doses of its candidate vaccine, mRNA-1273, a study expected to complete in 2021.[134]
In July 2020, Moderna scientists published preliminary results of the phaseI dose escalation clinical trial of mRNA-1273, showing dose-dependent induction of neutralizing antibodies against S1/S2 as early as 15 days post-injection. Mild to moderateadverse reactions, such asfever, fatigue, headache,muscle ache, and pain at the injection site were observed in all dose groups, but were common with increased dosage.[102] The vaccine in low doses was deemed safe and effective in order to advance aphaseIII clinical trial using two 100-μg doses administered 29 days apart.[102]
In July 2020, Moderna announced in a preliminary report that itsOperation Warp Speed candidate had led to production ofneutralizing antibodies in healthy adults inphaseI clinical testing.[102][135] "At the 100-microgram dose, the one Moderna is advancing into larger trials, all 15 patients experienced side effects, including fatigue, chills, headache, muscle pain, and pain at the site of injection."[136] The troublesome higher doses were discarded in July from future studies.[136][duplication?]
In September 2021, a study funded by theNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases reported a strong immune response after six months, even at low doses, suggesting that more doses could be deployed from a limited vaccine supply. Six months after low-dose vaccination, 67% of participants still hadmemorycytotoxic T cells, suggesting that immune memory is stable. The study also found thatcross-reactive T cells acquired during infection with other coronaviruses that cause the common cold increased the response to the vaccine.[137][138]
Phase III clinical trials
Moderna and theNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases began a phaseIII trial in the US in July 2020, with a plan to enroll and assign thirty-thousand volunteers to two groups – one group receiving two 100-μg doses of mRNA-1273 vaccine and the other receiving aplacebo of 0.9% sodium chloride.[139] As of 7August, more than 4,500 volunteers had enrolled.[citation needed]
In September 2020, Moderna published the detailed study plan for the clinical trial.[140] In September 2020, CEO Stéphane Bancel said that, if the trial is successful, the vaccine might be available to the public as early as late March or early April 2021.[141] As of October 2020, Moderna had completed the enrollment of 30,000 participants needed for its phaseIII trial.[142] The US National Institutes of Health announced in November 2020, that overall trial results were positive.[143]
Since September 2020, Moderna has usedRoche Diagnostics' Elecsys Anti-SARS-CoV-2 S test, authorized by the USFood and Drug Administration (FDA) under an emergency use authorization (EUA) in November 2020. According to an independent supplier of clinical assays in microbiology, "this will facilitate the quantitative measurement of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and help to establish a correlation between vaccine-induced protection and levels of anti-receptor binding domain (RBD) antibodies." The partnership was announced by Roche on 9December 2020.[144]
A review by the FDA in December 2020, of interim results of the phaseIII clinical trial on mRNA-1273 showed it to be safe and effective against COVID‑19 infection resulting in the issuance of an EUA by the FDA.[145]
Pregnant and breastfeeding women were also excluded from the initial trials used to obtain the emergency use authorization,[148] though trials in those populations were expected to be performed in 2021.[149]
In March 2021, in order to increase the span of vaccination beyond adults, Moderna started the clinical trials of vaccines on children age 6-months to 11-years-old in the US and in Canada (KidCove),[150] in addition to the existing and fully-enrolled study on 12-17 year-olds (TeenCOVE).[151][63]
Additional trials were completed—NCT04796896,[152] NCT04649151,[153] and NCT05436834.[154]
As of December 2020, the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine was under evaluation for emergency authorization or approval by multiple countries which would enable rapid rollout of the vaccine in the United Kingdom, the European Union (EU), Canada, and the United States.[155][156][157][158]
In December 2020, the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine was authorized by the USFood and Drug Administration (FDA) under anemergency use authorization (EUA) for people aged 18 years of age and older.[159][160][145] This is the first product from Moderna that has been authorized by the FDA.[161][162] In June 2022, the EUA was expanded to include people aged six months through sixteen years of age.[163] In April 2023, the authorization for the original, monovalent, version of the vaccine in the US was withdrawn.[164][165] As of April 2023, only the bivalent (Original and Omicron BA.4/BA.5) version of the vaccine is authorized in the US.[164][165]
In August 2021, Malaysia's National Pharmaceutical Regulatory Agency (NPRA) gave conditional registration for emergency use of the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine.[177]
In August 2021, Spikevax was granted provisional approval in Australia.[14] The approval was updated in September 2021, to include people aged twelve and older.[15]
The Moderna Spikevax COVID-19 vaccine was authorized in Canada in September 2021, for people aged 12 and older.[23][5][186]
The Moderna Spikevax COVID-19 vaccine was authorized in the US in January 2022, for people aged 18 and older.[1][187][91]
The Moderna Spikevax Bivalent Zero/Omicron vaccine was approved for medical use in the United Kingdom in August 2022.[52]
In September 2022, the CHMP of the EMA recommended converting the conditional marketing authorizations of the vaccine into standard marketing authorizations.[39] The recommendation covers all existing and upcoming adapted Spikevax vaccines, including the recently approved adapted Spikevax bivalent Original/Omicron BA.1.[39]
In July 2025, Spikevax was fully approved in the US for use in children aged six months through eleven years of age who are at increased risk for COVID-19 disease.[188]
Boosters
US military personnel being administered the Moderna vaccine in December 2020CDCCOVID-19 vaccine card showing the first Moderna shot.
In January 2021, Moderna announced that it would offer a third dose of its vaccine to people who were vaccinated twice in its phaseI trial. The booster would be made available to participants six to twelve months after they got their second dose. The company said it may also study a third shot in participants from its phaseIII trial, if antibody persistence data warranted it.[189][190][191] It also started testing to see if a third shot of the existing vaccine could be used to fend off the virus variants.[192]
In October 2021, theEuropean Medicines Agency (EMA) stated that people with "severely weakened" immune systems can receive an extra dose of either the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine or the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine starting at least 28 days after their second dose.[66]
In January 2021, Moderna started development of a new form of its vaccine, called mRNA-1273.351, that could be used as a booster shot against theBeta variant (lineage B.1.351).[201][192] In February 2021, Moderna announced that it had manufactured and shipped sufficient amounts of mRNA-1273.351 to theNational Institutes of Health to run phaseI clinical trials.[202] Moderna also investigated a multivalent booster, mRNA-1273.211, which combines a 50-50 mix of mRNA-1273 and mRNA-1273.351.[203][204]
A bivalent version of the vaccine containing elasomeran/imelasomeran (Spikevax bivalent Original/Omicron)[51] was approved for use in the United Kingdom and in Australia in August 2022.[52][53][205][18] It was approved for use in Canada in September 2022.[57][206][23]
In October 2022, the FDA amended the authorization for the bivalent booster to cover people aged six years of age and older.[207] In December 2022, the FDA amended the authorization for the bivalent booster to cover people aged six months and older.[208]
XBB.1.5 monovalent vaccine
In September 2023, the FDA approved an updated a monovalent (single) component Omicron variantXBB.1.5 version of the vaccine (Spikevax 2023-2024 formula) as a single dose for individuals aged twelve years of age and older;[34] and authorized the Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine 2023-2024 formula under emergency use for individuals aged 6 months through 11 years of age.[209][210] The updated version was tested in a small human trial of 101 participants; 50 received the monovalent XBB.1.5 version, compared to 51 who received a version containing XBB.1.5, BA.4 and BA.5. All participants had previously received four doses of older formulations of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine. The safety profile of the authorized XBB.1.5 was found to be "consistent with previously authorized vaccines."[211][212] The approvals and emergency authorizations for the bivalent version of the vaccine were revoked.[209] Health Canada authorized the Moderna Spikevax COVID-19 vaccine (Omicron XBB.1.5 subvariant) (andusomeran) in September 2023.[5][23][213] The MHRA approved the use of the Moderna (Spikevax) XBB.1.5 vaccine in September 2023.[214][215]
In September 2024, the European Union authorized the Spikevax JN.1 vaccine.[2][219][220][221]
In September 2024, Swissmedic authorized the Spikevax JN.1 vaccine.[222]
In September 2024, the Taiwan Food & Drug Administration authorized the Spikevax JN.1 vaccine.[223]
KP.2 monovalent vaccine
In August 2024, the FDA approved and granted emergency authorization for a monovalent Omicron KP.2 version of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine.[224] The approval of Spikevax (COVID-19 Vaccine, mRNA) (2024-2025 Formula) was granted to ModernaTX Inc. and the EUA amendment for the Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine (2024-2025 Formula) was issued to ModernaTX Inc.[224][225]
Society and culture
About 155million doses of the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine, including about 3.1million doses in children and adolescents (below 18 years of age) were administered in the EU/EEA from authorization to 26 June 2022.[95]
Davesomeran is the INN for the BA.5 variant in the bivalent version of the vaccine.[11][228][229] Andusomeran is the INN for the XBB 1.5 variant version of the vaccine.[11][230][231]
Economics
Kamala Harris, Vice President of the United States, receiving her second dose of the Moderna vaccination in January 2021.
In June 2020,Singapore signed a pre-purchase agreement for Moderna, reportedly paying a price premium in order to secure early stock of vaccines, although the government declined to provide the actual price and quantity, citing commercial sensitivities and confidentiality clauses.[232][233]
In August 2020, the US government signed an agreement to buy 100million doses of Moderna's anticipated vaccine,[234] which theFinancial Times said Moderna planned to price atUS$50–60 per course.[235] In November 2020, Moderna said it will charge governments who purchase its vaccine betweenUS$25 andUS$37 per dose while the EU is seeking a price of underUS$25 per dose for the 160million doses it plans to purchase from Moderna.[236][237]
In 2020, Moderna obtained purchase agreements for mRNA-1273 with the European Union for 160million doses and with Canada for up to 56million doses.[238][239] In December 2020, atweet by theBelgium Budget State Secretary revealed the E.U. would payUS$18 per dose, whileThe New York Times reported that the US would payUS$15 per dose.[240]
Moderna reported revenue ofUS$200million from its COVID‑19 vaccine in 2020,[241] and $17.7billion in 2021.[242]
Paused vaccinations
Out of concern that the vaccine may increase the risk ofmyocarditis in young people under age 30, Finland, Sweden, Germany, and France recommended Moderna vaccinations not be used for this age group in October/November 2021.[243][244][245][246][247]
In May 2020, after releasing partial and non-peer-reviewed results for only eight of 45 candidates in a preliminary pre-phaseI stage human trial directly to financial markets, the CEO announced onCNBC an immediate $1.25billion rights issue to raise funds for the company, at a $30billion valuation,[248] whileStat said, "Vaccine experts say Moderna didn't produce data critical to assessing COVID‑19 vaccine."[249]
In July 2020, disputes between Moderna and government scientists over the company's unwillingness to share data from the clinical trials were revealed.[250]
Moderna also faced criticism for failing to recruit people of color in clinical trials.[251]
In August 2021, theUS Department of Health and Human Services announced a plan to offer abooster dose eight months after the second dose, citing evidence of reduced protection against mild and moderate disease and the possibility of reduced protection against severe disease, hospitalization, and death.[252] Scientists and the WHO reaffirmed the lack of evidence on the need for a booster dose for healthy people and that the vaccine remains effective against severe disease months after administration.[253] In a statement, the WHO andSAGE said that, while protection against infection may be diminished, protection against severe disease will likely be retained due tocell-mediated immunity.[254] Research into optimal timing for boosters is still ongoing, and a booster too early may lead to less robust protection.[255]
In November 2021, a White House correspondent for the conservative outletNewsmax falsely tweeted that the Moderna vaccine containedluciferase "so that you can be tracked."[260][261]
Patent litigation
ThePEGylatedlipidnanoparticle (LNP) drug delivery system of mRNA-1273 has been the subject of ongoing patent litigation withArbutus Biopharma, from whom Moderna had previously licensed LNP technology.[96][262] On 4September 2020,Nature Biotechnology reported that Moderna had lost a key challenge in the ongoing case.[263]
Explanatory notes
^21 December 2020 to 7 September 2021 in Qatar.[82]
^abcd14 December 2020 to 19 April 2021 in Ontario, Canada.[83]
^Aconfidence interval was not provided, so it is not possible to know the accuracy of this measurement.
^Krause P, Fleming TR, Longini I, Henao-Restrepo AM, Peto R (September 2020)."COVID-19 vaccine trials should seek worthwhile efficacy".Lancet.396 (10253):741–743.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31821-3.PMC7832749.PMID32861315.WHO recommends that successful vaccines should show an estimated risk reduction of at least one-half, with sufficient precision to conclude that the true vaccine efficacy is greater than 30%. This means that the 95% CI for the trial result should exclude efficacy less than 30%. Current US Food and Drug Administration guidance includes this lower limit of 30% as a criterion for vaccine licensure.
^ab"COVID-19 vaccines safety update"(PDF).European Medicines Agency (EMA). 3 August 2022.Archived(PDF) from the original on 3 August 2022. Retrieved3 August 2022. Text was copied from this source which is copyright European Medicines Agency. Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.
^World Health Organization (June 2021). "INN Proposed International Nonproprietary Names: List 125 COVID-19 (special edition)".WHO Drug Information.35 (2):578–9.hdl:10665/343367.
^Clinical trial numberNCT04405076 for "Dose-Confirmation Study to Evaluate the Safety, Reactogenicity, and Immunogenicity of mRNA-1273 COVID-19 Vaccine in Adults Aged 18 Years and Older" atClinicalTrials.gov
^Clinical trial numberNCT04470427 for "A Study to Evaluate Efficacy, Safety, and Immunogenicity of mRNA-1273 Vaccine in Adults Aged 18 Years and Older to Prevent COVID-19" atClinicalTrials.gov
^"Coronavirus Disease 2019".Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Press release). 10 January 2022.Archived from the original on 4 February 2022. Retrieved4 February 2022.
^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 September 2024. Retrieved13 September 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^World Health Organization (2021). "International nonproprietary names for pharmaceutical substances (INN): recommended INN: list 86".WHO Drug Information.35 (3).hdl:10665/346562.
^World Health Organization (2022). "International nonproprietary names for pharmaceutical substances (INN): recommended INN: list 88".WHO Drug Information.36 (3).hdl:10665/363551.
^"Donald Trump appears to admit Covid is 'running wild' in the US".The Guardian. 22 November 2020.Archived from the original on 22 November 2020. Retrieved22 November 2020.Moderna told the German weekly Welt am Sonntag that it will charge governments between $25 and $37 per dose of its Covid vaccine candidate, depending on the amount ordered.
^"COVID-19 Vaccine Myths and Facts"(PDF). Los Angeles County Department of Public Health. 15 December 2021.Archived(PDF) from the original on 25 August 2021. Retrieved27 August 2021.
^"COVID-19 Vaccine Facts".Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 18 August 2021.Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved27 August 2021.
World Health Organization (2021). Background document on the mRNA-1273 vaccine (Moderna) against COVID-19: background document to the WHO Interim recommendations for use of the mRNA-1273 vaccine (Moderna), 3 February 2021 (Report).World Health Organization (WHO).hdl:10665/339218. WHO/2019-nCoV/vaccines/SAGE_recommendation/mRNA-1273/background/2021.1.
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