The city was historically known asMensk orMenesk, and according to one version, the name is derived from the Russianmenyat ('to barter' or 'to exchange'), as it referred to a marketplace.[5][6] According to another version, it is derived from the Menka River, a tributary of thePtsich.[7] The formMinsk (spelled eitherМинскъ orМѣнскъ) was taken over both in Russian (modern spelling:Минск) and Polish (Mińsk), and under theinfluence of Russian, this form also became official in Belarusian. The direct continuation of the name in Belarusian isMiensk (Менск,IPA:[ˈmʲɛnsk]),[8] which some Belarusian-speakers continue to use as their preferred name for the city.[9]
When Belarus was under Lithuanian rule, the namesMińsk Litewski ('Minsk ofLithuania') andMińsk Białoruski ('Minsk of Belarus') were used to differentiate this place name fromMińsk Mazowiecki 'Minsk inMazovia'. In modern Polish,Mińsk without an attribute usually refers to the city in Belarus, which is about 50 times bigger than Mińsk Mazowiecki; (compareBrest-Litovsk andBrześć Kujawski for a similar case).[10]
TheSvislach River valley was the settlement boundary between two early East Slavic tribes – theKrivichs andDregoviches. By 980, the area was incorporated into theearly medievalPrincipality of Polotsk, one of the earliest East Slavic principalities ofKievan Rus'. Minsk was first mentioned in the name formMěneskъ (Мѣнескъ) in thePrimary Chronicle for the year 1067 in association with theBattle on the River Nemiga.[11] 1067 is now widely accepted as the founding year of Minsk. City authorities consider the date of 3 March 1067 to be the exact founding date of the city,[12] though the town (by then fortified by wooden walls) had certainly existed for some time. The origin of the name is unknown but there are several theories.[13]
In the early 12th century, thePrincipality of Polotsk disintegrated into smaller fiefs. ThePrincipality of Minsk was established by one of thePolotsk dynasty princes. In 1129, the Principality of Minsk was annexed byKiev, the dominant principality ofKievan Rus'; however in 1146 the Polotsk dynasty regained control of the principality. By 1150, Minsk rivalled Polotsk as the major city in the former Principality of Polotsk. The princes of Minsk and Polotsk were engaged in years of struggle trying to unite all lands previously under the rule of Polotsk.[14]
In 1655, Minsk was conquered by troops ofTsar Alexis of Russia.[17] Russians governed the city until 1660 when it was regained byJohn II Casimir, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland. By the end of thePolish-Russian War, Minsk had only about 2,000 residents and just 300 houses. The second wave of devastation occurred during theGreat Northern War, when Minsk was occupied in 1708 and 1709 by the army ofCharles XII of Sweden and then by the army ofPeter the Great.[18] The last decades of the Lithuanian rule involved decline or very slow development, since Minsk had become a small provincial town of little economic or military significance.
Throughout the 19th century, the city continued to grow and significantly improve. In the 1830s, major streets and squares of Minsk were cobbled and paved. A first public library was opened in 1836, and a fire brigade was put into operation in 1837. In 1838, the first local newspaper,Minskiye gubernskiye vedomosti ("Minsk province news") went into circulation. The first theatre was established in 1844. By 1860, Minsk was an important trading city with a population of 27,000. There was a construction boom that led to the building of two- and three-story brick and stone houses inUpper Town.[22][23]
Minsk's development was boosted by improvements in transportation. In 1846, the Moscow-Warsaw road was laid through Minsk. In 1871, a railway link between Moscow and Warsaw ran via Minsk, and in 1873, a newrailway from Romny in Ukraine to the Baltic Sea port of Libava (Liepāja) was also constructed. Thus Minsk became an important rail junction and a manufacturing hub. Amunicipal water supply was introduced in 1872, the telephone in 1890, the horse tram in 1892, and the first power generator in 1894. By 1900, Minsk had 58 factories employing 3,000 workers. The city also boasted theatres, cinemas, newspapers, schools and colleges, as well as numerous monasteries, churches, synagogues, and a mosque. According to the 1897Russian census, the city had 91,494 inhabitants, with some 47,561 Jews constituting more than half of the city population.[22][24]
In the early years of the 20th century, Minsk was a major centre for the worker's movement in Belarus. The1st Congress of theRussian Social Democratic Labour Party, the forerunner to theBolsheviks and eventually theCPSU, was held there in 1898. It was also one of the major centres of theBelarusian national revival, alongsideVilnius. However, theFirst World War significantly affected the development of Minsk. By 1915, Minsk was a battlefront city. Some factories were closed down, and residents began evacuating to the east. Minsk became the headquarters ofthe Western Front of the Russian army and also housed military hospitals andmilitary supply bases.[25]
Belarusian national flag over the building of the People's Secretariat of the Belarusian People's Republic, 1918
A programme of reconstruction and development began in 1922. By 1924, there were 29 factories in operation; schools, museums, theatres and libraries were also established. Throughout the 1920s and the 1930s, Minsk saw rapid development with dozens of new factories being built and new schools, colleges, higher education establishments, hospitals, theatres and cinemas being opened. During this period, Minsk was also a centre for the development of Belarusian language and culture.[27]
Meeting in theKurapaty woods, 1989, where between 1937 and 1941 from 30,000 to 250,000 Belarusianintelligentsia members were murdered by theNKVD during theGreat Purge
Before theSecond World War, Minsk had a population of 300,000 people. At the start of the war, on 11 September 1939, the Belarusian Front of theRed Army was formed shortly before the Sovietinvasion on Poland, and its headquarters was located in Minsk.[28] The Germans captured Minsk in theBattle of Białystok–Minsk, as part ofOperation Barbarossa;after it had been devastated by theLuftwaffe. However, some factories, museums, and tens of thousands of civilians had been evacuated to the east. The Germans designated Minsk the administrative centre ofGeneralbezirk Weißruthenien. Communists and sympathisers were killed or imprisoned, both locally and after being transported to Germany. Homes were requisitioned to house invading German forces. Thousands starved as food was seized by the German Army and paid work was scarce. Minsk was the site of one of the largest Nazi-runghettos in the Second World War, temporarily housing over 100,000 Jews (seeMinsk Ghetto). The Germans operated the Dulag 126 and Dulag 127 transit camps for prisoners of war in Minsk in 1941, and then the Stalag 352prisoner-of-war camp for Soviet andItalian POWs from 1941 to 1944.[29] Some anti-Soviet residents of Minsk, who hoped that Belarus could regain independence, did support the Germans, especially at the beginning of the occupation, but by 1942, Minsk had become a major centre of theSoviet partisanresistance movement against the invasion, in what is known in some post-Soviet states as theGreat Patriotic War. For this role, Minsk was awarded the titleHero City in 1974.[30]
Minsk was recaptured by Soviet troops on 3 July 1944 in theMinsk offensive as part ofOperation Bagration. The city was the centre of German resistance to the Soviet advance and saw heavy fighting during the first half of 1944. Factories, municipal buildings,power stations, bridges, most roads, and 80% of the houses were reduced to rubble. In 1944, Minsk's population was reduced to a mere 50,000.[31]
The historical centre was replaced in the 1940s and 1950s byStalinist architecture, which favoured grand buildings, broad avenues and wide squares. Subsequently, the city grew rapidly as a result of massive industrialisation. Since the 1960s Minsk's population has also grown apace, reaching 1 million in 1972 and 1.5 million in 1986.Construction ofMinsk Metro began on 16 June 1977, and the system was opened to the public on 30 June 1984, becoming the ninth metro system in the Soviet Union.The rapid population growth was primarily driven by mass migration of young, unskilled workers from rural areas of Belarus, as well as by migration ofskilled workers from other parts of theSoviet Union.[citation needed][32] To house the expanding population, Minsk spread beyond its historical boundaries. Its surrounding villages were absorbed and rebuilt asmikroraions, districts of high-density apartment housing.[33]
Throughout the 1990s, after the fall of communism, the city continued to change. As the capital of a newly independent country, Minsk quickly acquired the attributes of a major city. Embassies were opened, and a number of Soviet administrative buildings became government centres. During the early and mid-1990s, Minsk was hit by aneconomic crisis and many development projects were halted, resulting in high unemployment and underemployment. Since the late 1990s, there have been improvements in transport and infrastructure, and a housing boom has been underway since 2002. On the outskirts of Minsk, newmikroraions ofresidential development have been built. Metro lines have been extended, and the road system (including theMinsk BeltWay) has been improved. In recent years Minsk has been continuously decentralizing,[34] with a third line of theMinsk Metro opening in 2020. More development is planned for several areas outside the city centre, while the future of the older neighborhoods is still unclear.[34]
Minsk is located on the southeastern slope of the Minsk Hills, a region of rolling hills running from the southwest (upper reaches of the riverNeman) to the northeast[35]– that is, to Lukomskaye Lake in northwesternBelarus. The average altitude above sea level is 220 metres (720 ft). The physical geography of Minsk was shaped over the twomost recent ice ages. TheSvislach River, which flows across the city from the northwest to the southeast, is in theurstromtal, an ancient river valley formed by water flowing from meltingice sheets at the end of the last Ice Age. There are six smaller rivers within the city limits, all part of theBlack Sea basin.
Minsk is in the area ofmixed forests typical of most of Belarus. Pinewood and mixed forests border the edge of the city, especially in the north and east. Some of the forests were preserved as parks (for instance, theChelyuskinites Park) as the city grew.
The city was initially built on the hills, which allowed for defensive fortifications, and the western parts of the city are the most hilly.
Only 5 km (3.1 mi) from the northwestern edge of city lies the largeZaslawskaye reservoir, often called the Minsk sea. It is the second largest reservoir in Belarus, constructed in 1956.[36]
Minsk has a warm summerhumid continental climate (KöppenDfb,TrewarthaDcbo), although its weather is oftentimes unpredictable, given its location between the strong influence of the moist air over the Atlantic Ocean and the dry air over theEurasian landmass. Its weather is unstable and tends to change relatively often. The average January temperature is −4.2 °C (24.4 °F), while the average July temperature is 19.1 °C (66.4 °F). The lowest temperature was recorded on 17 January 1940, at −39.1 °C (−38 °F) and the warmest on 8 August 2015 at 35.8 °C (96 °F). Fog is frequent, especially in the autumn and spring. Minsk receives 686 millimetres (27.0 in) ofprecipitation annually, of which one-third falls during the cold period of the year (as snow or rain) and two-thirds during the warm period. Throughout the year, winds are generally westerly or northwesterly, bringing cool and moist air from the Atlantic.
Climate data for Minsk (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1887–present)
The ecological situation is monitored by Republican Centre of Radioactive and Environmental Control.[40]
During 2003–2008 the overall weight of contaminants increased from 186,000 to 247,400tons.[40] The change from gas as industrial fuel tomazut for financial reasons has worsened the ecological situation.[40] However, the majority of overall air pollution is produced by cars.[40] Belarusian traffic policeDAI every year hold operation "Clean Air" to prevent the use of cars with extremely polluting engines.[41] Sometimes the maximum normative concentration offormaldehyde andammonia in air is exceeded inZavodski District.[40] Other major contaminants areChromium-VI andnitrogen dioxide.[40]Zavodski,Partyzanski andLeninski districts, which are located in the southeastern part of Minsk, are the most polluted areas in the city.[42]
During its first centuries, Minsk was a city with a predominantly Early East Slavic population (the forefathers of modern-dayBelarusians).
After the 1569Lublin Union, Minsk became part of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. With the religiousUnion of Brest, Minsk underwent religious and linguisticPolonization.[47] This pressure intensified after theRusso-Polish War of 1654–1667, which led to the transfer of property to the Polish nobility due to the deaths of the previous owners.[48] The period of Polish rule also led to a massive migration of Jews to Belarusian lands, with their share in cities growing from less than 10% to half.[47]
After thesecond partition of Poland in 1793, Minsk and its larger region became part of theRussian Empire. Despite the Imperial authorities' attempts to eradicate Polish influence by promotingOrthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality,[49] Poles continued to dominate the city council and control most of the income-producing real estate in the early 20th century.[50]
At the time of the1897 census under the Russian Empire, Jews[a] were the largest religious group in Minsk, accounting for 52% of the population, with 47,562 out of 90,912 residents.[52]Russian was the mother tongue of 25.5% of the population,Polish – 11.4%, andBelarusian – 9.0%.[53] Their respective literacy rates were 65.2%, 55.4%, and 34.4%. Among Jews, 46.2% were literate.[54]80% of residents were born inMinsk Governorate.[55]
A small traditional community ofLipka Tatars had been living in Minsk for centuries.[56][57]
Between the 1880s and 1930s, many Jews emigrated from the city to the United States as part of aJewish diaspora.[citation needed]The high mortality of the First World War and the Second World War affected the demographics of the city, particularly the destruction of Jews under theNazi occupation of the Second World War. Working through local populations, Germans instituted deportation of Jewish citizens to concentration camps, murdering most of them there. The Jewish community of Minsk suffered catastrophic losses inthe Holocaust. From more than half the population of the city, the percentage of Jews dropped to less than 10% more than ten years after the war. After its limited population peaked in the 1970s, continuing anti-Semitism under the Soviet Union and increasing nationalism in Belarus caused most Jews to emigrate to Israel and western countries in the 1980s; by 1999, less than 1% of the population of Minsk was Jewish.[58]
In the first three decades of the post-war years, the most numerous new residents in Minsk were rural migrants from other parts of Belarus; the proportion of ethnic Belarusians increased markedly. Numerous skilled Russians and other migrants from other parts of theSoviet Union migrated for jobs in the growing manufacturing sector.[59] In 1959 Belarusians made up 63.3% of the city's residents. Other ethnic groups included Russians (22.8%), Jews (7.8%), Ukrainians (3.6%), Poles (1.1%) and Tatars (0.4%). Continued migration from rural Belarus in the 1960s and 1970s changed the ethnic composition further. By 1979 Belarusians made up 68.4% of the city's residents. Other ethnic groups included Russians (22.2%), Jews (3.4%), Ukrainians (3.4%), Poles (1.2%) and Tatars (0.2%).[59]
According to the1989 census, 83% of Minsk residents were born in Belarus, including 42% born in Minsk, 22% in theMinsk region, and 19% in other parts of Belarus (6% of whom were fromGrodno andBrest regions). Those born in other republics accounted for 17% of Minsk residents, with 10% from theSoviet Russia and 3% from theSoviet Ukraine.[60]
According to the 1999 census,Belarusians made up 79.3% of the city's residents. Other ethnic groups includedRussians (15.7%),Ukrainians (2.4%),Poles (1.1%) and Jews (0.6%). The Russian and Ukrainian populations of Minsk peaked in the late 1980s (at 325,000 and 55,000 respectively). Since Belarus's independence, many of them chose to move to their respective mother countries, although some families had been in Minsk for generations. Another factor in the shifting demographics of the city was the changing self-identification of Minsk residents of mixed ancestry – in independent Belarus they identify as Belarusians.[citation needed]
TheJewish population of Minsk peaked in the early 1970s at 50,000 according to official figures; independent estimates put the figure at between 100,000 and 120,000. Beginning in the 1980s, there has been mass-scale emigration to Israel, the US, and Germany. Today only about 10,000 Jews live in Minsk. The traditional minorities of Poles and Tatars have remained at much the same size (17,000 and 3,000 respectively). Rural Poles have migrated from the western part of Belarus to Minsk, and many Tatars have moved to Minsk fromTatarstan.[citation needed]
Some more recentethnic minority communities have developed as a result of immigration. The most prominent are immigrants from theCaucasus countries –Armenians,Azerbaijanis andGeorgians each numbering about 2,000 to 5,000. They began migrating to Minsk in the 1970s, and more immigrants have joined them since. Many work in theretail trade in open-air markets. A small but prominent Arab community has developed in Minsk, primarily represented by recent economic immigrants fromSyria,Lebanon,Egypt,Algeria, etc. (In many cases, they are graduates of Minsk universities who decide to settle in Belarus and bring over their families). A small community ofRomani, numbering about 2,000, are settled in suburbs of north-western and southern Minsk.[citation needed]
Trilingual Belarusian, English, and Chinese signage, Minsk railway station (2018)
Throughout its history Minsk has been a city of many languages. Initially most of its residents spokeRuthenian (which later developed into modernBelarusian). However, after 1569 theofficial language wasPolish.[61] In the 19th-century Russian became the official language and by the end of that century it had become the language of administration, schools and newspapers. The Belarusian national revival increased interest in the Belarusian language – its use has grown since the 1890s, especially among theintelligentsia. In the 1920s and early 1930s Belarusian was the major language of Minsk, including use for administration and education (both secondary and tertiary). However, since the late 1930s Russian again began gaining dominance.[citation needed]
A short period of Belarusian national revival in the early 1990s saw a rise in the numbers of Belarusian speakers. However, in 1994 the newly elected presidentAlexander Lukashenko slowly reversed this trend. Most residents of Minsk now use Russian exclusively in their everyday lives at home and at work, although Belarusian is understood as well. Substantial numbers of recent migrants from the rural areas useTrasianka (a Russo-Belarusian mixed language) in their everyday lives.[62]
As of 2006, there are approximately 30 religious communities of various denominations in Minsk.[63][64] The only functioning monastery in the city isSt Elisabeth Convent; its large complex of churches is open to visitors.
Minsk has the highest crime rate in Belarus – 193.5 crimes per 10,000 citizens.[65][66] 20–25% of all serious crimes in Belarus, 55% of bribes and 67% of mobile phone thefts are committed in Minsk.[65][67] However, attorney general Grigory Vasilevich stated that the homicide rate in Minsk in 2008 was "relatively fine".[68]
The crime rate grew significantly in 2009 and 2010:[65] for example, the number of corruption crimes grew by 36% in 2009 alone.[69] Crime detection level varies from 13% in burglary[70] to 92% in homicide[71] with an average 40.1%.[72] Many citizens are concerned for their safety at night and the strongest concern was expressed by residents of Chizhovka and Shabanymicrodistricts (both inZavodski District).[71]
The SIZO-1 detention center, IK-1 general prison, and theKGB special jail called "Amerikanka" are all located in Minsk.Alexander Lukashenko's rivals in the2010 presidential election were imprisoned in the KGB jail[73] along with other prominent politicians and civil activists.Ales Michalevic, who was kept in this jail, accused the KGB of using torture.[74][75]
On 15 November 2020, more than 1,000 protesters were arrested during an anti-government protest. Protesters took to the streets in the capital, Minsk, following the death of an opposition activist,Raman Bandarenka. The activist died after allegedly being beaten up by the security forces. The protesters put flowers at the site where he was detained before succumbing to his injuries.[76]
Minsk is theeconomic capital of Belarus. It has developed industrial and services sectors which serve the needs not only of the city, but of the entire nation. Minsk's contributions form nearly 46% of Belarusian budget.[77] According to 2010 results, Minsk paid 15 trillion BYR to state budget while the whole income from all other regions was 20 trillion BYR.[78] In the period January 2013 to October 2013, 70.6% of taxes in the budget of Minsk were paid by non-state enterprises, 26.3% by state enterprises, and 1.8% by individual entrepreneurs. Among the top 10 taxpayers were five oil and gas companies (including twoGazprom's and oneLukoil's subsidiaries), two mobile network operators (MTS andA1), two companies producing alcoholic beverages (Minsk-Kristall and Minsk grape wines factory) and one producer of tobacco goods.[79]
In 2012,Gross Regional Product of Minsk was formed mainly by industry (26.4%), wholesale (19.9%), transportation and communications (12.3%), retail (8.6%) and construction (5.8%).
The GRP of Minsk measured in Belarusian rubles was 55 billion (€20 billion) or around 1/3 of the GDP of Belarus.[80]
Minsk city has highest salaries in Belarus. As of December 2023 average gross salary in Minsk was 3,240 BYN per month (~ US$1,000).[81]
There are more than 400 travel agencies in Minsk, about a quarter of them provide agent activity, and most of them are tour operators.[82][83]
Minsk is the major industrial centre of Belarus. According to 2012 statistics, Minsk-based companies produced 21.5% of electricity, 76% of trucks, 15.9% of footwear, 89.3% of television sets, 99.3% of washing machines, 30% of chocolate, 27.7% of distilled alcoholic beverages and 19.7% of tobacco goods in Belarus.[84]
Today the city has over 250 factories and plants. Its industrial development started in the 1860s and was facilitated by the railways built in the 1870s. However, much of the industrial infrastructure was destroyed during World War I, especially during World War II. After the last war, the development of the city was linked to the development of industry, especially ofR&D-intensive sectors (heavy emphasis of R&D intensive industries inurban development in the USSR is known in Western geography as 'Minsk phenomenon').[citation needed] Minsk was turned into a major production site for trucks, tractors, gears, optical equipment, refrigerators, television sets and radios, bicycles, motorcycles, watches, and metal-processing equipment. Outside machine-building and electronics, Minsk also had textiles, construction materials, food processing, and printing industries. During the Soviet period, the development of the industries was linked to suppliers and markets within the USSR. The break-up of the union in 1991 led to a serious economic meltdown in 1991–1994.[85]
However, since the adoption of the neo-Keynesean policies underAlexander Lukashenko's government in 1995, much of the gross industrial production was regained.[85] Unlike many other cities in the CIS and Eastern Europe, Minsk was not heavily de-industrialised in the 1990s. About 40% of the workforce is still employed in themanufacturing sector.[85]
Major industrial employers include:
Minsk Tractor Works – specialised in manufacturing tractors. Established in 1946 in eastern Minsk, is among major manufacturers of wheeled tractors in the CIS. Employs about 30,000 staff.[86]
Minsk Automobile Plant – specialising in producing trucks, buses, and mini-vans. Established in 1944 in south-eastern Minsk, is among major vehicle manufacturers in the CIS.[citation needed]
Minsk Refrigerator Plant (also known asAtlant) – specialised in manufacturing household goods, such as refrigerators, freezers, and recently also ofwashing machines. Established in 1959 in the north-west of the city.[87]
Horizont – specialised in producing TV-sets, audio and video electronics. Established in 1950 in north-central Minsk.[citation needed]
In 2011 official statistics quoted unemployment in Minsk at 0.3%.[88] During the 2009 census 5.6% of Minsk residents of employable age called themselves unemployed.[88]The government effectively discourages official unemployment registration because of tiny unemployment benefits and obligatory public works. In 2015–2017 there was an attempt (cancelled in January 2018) to collect the'free rider tax' [ru] taken from those who were unemployed unregistered for more than 6 months.[89]
Zavodski (Belarusian:Заводскі, Russian:Заводской, Zavodskoy), or "Factory district" (initially it included major plants,Minsk Tractor Works (MTZ) andMinsk Automobile Plant (MAZ), later the Partyzanski District with MTZ was split off it)
Leninski (Belarusian:Ленінскі, Russian:Ленинский, Leninsky), named afterLenin
Minsk is the major cultural centre of Belarus. Its first theatres and libraries were established in the middle of the 19th century. It presently has 11 theatres and 16 museums, along with 20 cinemas and 139 libraries.[citation needed]
The OrthodoxCathedral of the Holy Spirit is actually the former church of theBernardine convent. It was built in the simplifiedBaroque style in 1642–87 and went through renovations in 1741–46 and 1869.
TheCathedral of Saint Mary was built by theJesuits as their principal church in 1700–10, restored in 1951 and 1997; it overlooks the recently restored 18th-century city hall, located on the other side ofPlošča Svabody [be].
Another two historic churches are theChurch of Saint Joseph, formerly affiliated with the Bernardine monastery, built in 1644–52 and repaired in 1983, and the fortified church of Sts. Peter and Paul, originally built in the 1620s and recently restored, complete with its flanking twin towers.
Church of St. Thomas Aquinas with aCatholic monastery complex was founded in the early 17th century, destroyed in 1950. It was built in the Baroque style.
The Neo-Romanesque Roman CatholicRed Church (Church of Sts. Simeon and Helene) was built in 1906–10 immediately after religious freedoms were proclaimed in Imperial Russia and the tsar allowed dissidents to build their churches.
The largest church built in the Russian imperial period of the town's history is dedicated to St.Mary Magdalene.
Many Orthodox churches were built after thedissolution of the USSR in a variety of styles, although most remain true to theNeo-Russian idiom. A good example is St. Elisabeth's Convent, founded in 1999.
Kalvaryja (Calvary Cemetery) is the oldest surviving cemetery in the city. Many famous Belarusians are buried here. The cemetery was closed to new burials in the 1960s.
In 2013, Minsk hosted the European Junior Rowing Championships at the Republican Center of Olympic Training for Rowing And Canoeing to the north-west of the city.[91]
Minsk has a high-developed public transport system.[93] Passengers are served by 8 tramway lines, over 70trolleybus lines, 3 subway lines and over 100 bus lines. Trams were the first public transport used in Minsk (since 1892 – the horse-tram, and since 1929 – the electric tram). Public buses have been used in Minsk since 1924, and trolleybuses since 1952.[94][95]
Most of public transport is operated by Minsktrans, a city-owned and -funded transportnot-for-profit company. As of November 2021, Minsktrans used 1,322 buses (plus 93 electric buses), 744 trolleybuses and 135 tramway cars in Minsk.[96]
The Minsk city government in 2003 decreed that local transport provision should be set at a minimum level of 1 vehicle (bus, trolleybus or tram) per 1,500 residents. The number of vehicles in use by Minsktrans is 2.2 times higher than the minimum level.[citation needed]
Public transport fares are controlled by thecity's executive committee (city council). Single trip ticket for bus, trolleybus or tramway costs 0.75BYN (≈ USD 0.3),[97] 0.80 BYN for metro and 0.90 BYN for express buses.[97] Monthly ticket for one kind of transport costs 33 BYN and 61 BYN for all five.[97] Commercialmarshrutka's prices varies from 1.5 to 2 BYN.[citation needed]
Minsk is the only city in Belarus with anunderground metro system. Construction of the metro began in 1977, soon after the city reached over a million people, and the first line with 8 stations was opened in 1984. Since then it has expanded into three lines:Maskoŭskaja,Awtazavodskaya, andZelenaluzhskaya which are 19.1, 18.1 and 3.5 km (11.9, 11.2 and 2.2 mi) long with 15, 14 and 4 stations, respectively. On 7 November 2012, three new stations on the Moskovskaya Line were opened and another on 3 June 2014.[citation needed]. Construction of the third line began in 2011 and the first stage opened in 2020. Some layout plans speculate on a possible fourth line running from Vyasnyanka to Serabranka micro-rayons.[citation needed]
The system usesMetrovagonmash andStadler METRO trains. On a typical day Minsk metro is used by 800,000 passengers. In 2007 ridership of Minsk metro was 262.1 million passengers,[98] in 2017 ridership of Minsk metro was 284,1 million passengers,[99] making it the 5th busiest metro network in theformer USSR (behindMoscow,St. Petersburg,Kyiv, andKharkiv). During peak hours trains run each 2–2.5 minutes. The metro network employs 3,435 staff.[100]
Most of the urban transport is being renovated to modern standards. For instance, all metro stations built since 2001 have passenger lifts from platform to street level, thus enabling the use of the newer stations by disabled passengers.[citation needed][101]
Minsk Central Bus StationStadler FLIRT train (EPg), Minsk train station
Minsk is the largest transport hub in Belarus. Minsk is located at the junction of theWarsaw-Moscow railway (built in 1871) running from the southwest to the northeast of the city and theLiepāja–Romny railway (built in 1873) running from the northwest to the south. The first railway connects Russia with Poland and Germany; the second connects Ukraine with Lithuania and Latvia. They cross at theMinsk-Pasažyrski railway station, the main railway station of Minsk. The station was built in 1873 as Vilenski Vazkal. The initial wooden building was demolished in 1890 and rebuilt in stone. During World War II the Minsk railway station was completely destroyed. It was rebuilt in 1945 and 1946 and served until 1991.
The new building of the Minsk-Pasažyrski railway station was built during 1991–2002. Its construction was delayed due to financial difficulties. There were plans to move allsuburban rail traffic from Minsk-Pasažyrski to the smaller stations, Minsk-Uschodni (East), Minsk-Paŭdniovy (South) and Minsk-Paŭnočny (North), by 2020. However, those plans were scrapped in favour of developing a more integrated system of suburban rail (branded as City Lines, operated byBelarusian Railways). The system currently consists of 3 routes (toZaslawye,Čyrvony Ściah, andRudziensk) all terminating at the central train station and is being served by 6 Stadler FLIRT train sets.[102]
There is an intercity bus station that links Minsk with the nearby airport, with the suburbs and other cities in Belarus and the neighboring countries. There are frequent services to Moscow,Smolensk,Vilnius,Riga andWarsaw.[citation needed]
According to a 2019 survey of 1,934 people,[103] Minsk had around 811,000 adult bicycles and 232,000 child and adolescent bicycles. In Minsk there is one bike for every 1.9 people. The total number of bicycles in Minsk exceeds the total number of cars (770,000 personal automobiles). 39% of Minsk residents have a personal bike. 43% of Minsk residents ride a bicycle once a month or more. As of 2017, the level of bicycle use is about 1% of all transport movements (for comparison: 12% inBerlin, 50% inCopenhagen).[104]
Bike lane in Minsk
Since 2015, an annual bicycle parade / bicycle carnival is held in Minsk, during which vehicles are blocked for several hours along Pobediteley (Peramohi) Avenue. The number of participants in 2019 was more than 20,000 and the number of registrations was about 12,000.[105][106][107][108] In 2017, theEuropean Union funded the project "Urban cycling in Belarus" at a cost of €560,000, within the framework of which the public association Minsk Cycling Society together with the Council of Ministers created the regulatory document National Concept for the Development of Cycling in Belarus.[109][110] In 2020, Minsk entered the top 3 most cycling cities in theCIS – after Moscow andSaint Petersburg.[111]
Minsk National Airport is located 42 km (26 mi) to the east of the city. It opened in 1982 and the current railway station opened in 1987. It is aninternational airport with flights to Europe and the Middle East.[112]
Minsk Borovaya Airfield (UMMB) is located in a suburb north-east of the city, next to Zaliony Luh Forest Park, housing Aero Club Minsk and Minsk Aviation Museum.[114]
Minsk has about 451 kindergartens, 241 schools, 22 further education colleges,[115] and 29 higher education institutions,[116] including 12 major national universities.[citation needed]
Academy of Public Administration, established in 1991 and it acquired the status of a presidential institution in 1995. The Academy has 3 institutes:Institute of Administrative Personnel which has 3 departments,Institute of Civil Service which has 3 departments andResearch Institute of the Theory and Practice ofPublic administration.
Belarusian State University, founded in 1921. In 2006 had 15 major departments (Applied Mathematics and Informatics; Biology; Chemistry; Geography; Economics;International relations; Journalism; History; Humanitarian Sciences; Law; Mechanics and Mathematics; Philology; Philosophy andSocial sciences; Physics; Radiophysics and Electronics). It also included 5 R&D institutes, 24 Research Centres, 114 R&D laboratories. The University employs over 2,400 lecturers and 1,000 research fellows; 1,900 of these hold PhD or Dr. Sc. degrees. There are 16,000 undergraduate students at the university, as well as over 700 PhD students. In 2018Olga Chupris was the first female Vice-Rector appointed to the institution (Academic Work and Educational Innovations).
Belarusian State Medical University. Since 1921 – Medicine Department of the Belarusian State University. In 1930 becomes separate asBelarusian Medical Institute. In 2000 upgraded to university level. Has six departments.
Belarusian State Technological University, specialised in chemical andpharmaceutical technology, in printing and forestry. Founded in 1930 asForestry Institute inHomel. In 1941 evacuated to Sverdlovsk, nowYekaterinburg. Returned to Gomel in 1944, but in 1946 relocated to Minsk asBelarusian Institute of Technology. Upgraded to university level in 1993. Has nine departments.
Minsk State Linguistic University, founded in 1948 asMinsk Institute for Foreign Languages. In 2006 had 8 departments. Major focus on English, French, German and Spanish.
Minsk Innovation University, the largest private higher educational institution in Belarus. Established in 1991. Specializes in Economics, Management, Marketing, Finance,Psychology and Information technology.
Jauhien Kulik (1937–2002), artist and graphic designer who designed the 1991–95 coat of arms of Belarus, which was a version of the medieval symbolPahonia[126]
^"History of the War: Overview".Archives of Belarus. Department on Archives and Records Management of the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Belarus. Retrieved5 January 2026.
^"History".Belarusian Tour operator. 29 October 2013. Archived fromthe original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved29 October 2013.
^"End of XVIII - 1941" (in Russian). Official Site of Minsk Government. Archived fromthe original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved9 December 2021.
^Grzelak, Czesław (1992). "Agresja Zwiazku Sowieckiego na Polskę we wrześniu 1939 r.". In Tarczyński, Marek (ed.).Zbrodnia Katyńska. Droga do prawdy (in Polish). Warszawa: Niezależny Komitet Historyczny Badania Zbrodni Katyńskiej, Departament Prokuratury Ministerstwa Sprawiedliwości, Towarzystwo Naukowe Kryminalistyczne, Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny. p. 31.
^Megargee, Geoffrey P.; Overmans, Rüdiger; Vogt, Wolfgang (2022).The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 79–80,354–355.ISBN978-0-253-06089-1.
^Управление высшего образования [the management of higher education] (in Russian). Ministry of education of the Republic of Belarus. Archived fromthe original on 23 April 2018. Retrieved23 July 2018.
Bohn, Thomas M. (2008).Minsk – Musterstadt des Sozialismus: Stadtplanung und Urbanisierung in der Sowjetunion nach 1945. Köln: Böhlau.ISBN978-3-412-20071-8.
Бон, томас м. (2013)."Минский феномен". Городское планирование и урбанизация в Советском Союзе после Второй мировой войны. Translated by Слепович, Е. Москва: РОССПЭН.
Бон, томас м. (2016). Сагановіч, Г. (ed.)."Мінскі феномен". Гарадское планаванне і ўрбанізацыя ў Савецкім Саюзе пасля 1945 г. Translated by Рытаровіч, М. Мінск: Зміцер Колас.
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