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Mining engineering is the extraction of minerals from the ground. It is associated with many other disciplines, such asmineral processing, exploration, excavation,geology,metallurgy,geotechnical engineering andsurveying. A mining engineer may manage any phase of mining operations, from exploration and discovery of the mineral resources, throughfeasibility study, mine design, development of plans,production and operations tomine closure.[not verified in body]
Fromprehistoric times to the present,mining has played a significant role in the existence of the human race. Since the beginning of civilization, people have usedstone andceramics and, later,metals found on or close to theEarth's surface. These were used to manufacture earlytools andweapons. For example, high-qualityflint found in northernFrance and southernEngland were used to setfire and break rock.[1] Flint mines have been found inchalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts and galleries. The oldest known mine on the archaeological record is the "Lion Cave" inEswatini. At this site, whichradiocarbon dating indicates to be about 43,000 years old,paleolithic humans mined mineralhematite, which containediron and was ground to produce the redpigmentochre.[2][3]
Theancient Romans were innovators of mining engineering. They developed large-scale mining methods, such as the use of large volumes of water brought to the minehead byaqueducts forhydraulic mining. The exposed rock was then attacked byfire-setting, where fires were used to heat the rock, which would be quenched with a stream of water. Thethermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed. In some mines, the Romans utilized water-powered machinery such asreverse overshot water-wheels. These were used extensively in thecopper mines atRio Tinto in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, lifting water about 80 feet (24 m).[4]
Black powder was first used in mining inBanská Štiavnica,Kingdom of Hungary (present-daySlovakia) in 1627.[5] This allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosen and reveal ore veins, which was much faster than fire-setting. TheIndustrial Revolution saw further advances in mining technologies, including improved explosives andsteam-powered pumps, lifts, and drills.
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Becoming an accredited mining engineer requires a university or college degree. Training includes aBachelor of Engineering (B.Eng. or B.E.),Bachelor of Science (B.Sc. or B.S.),Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) orBachelor of Applied Science (B.A.Sc.) in mining engineering. Depending on the country and jurisdiction, to be licensed as a mining engineer may require aMaster of Engineering (M.Eng.),Master of Science (M.Sc or M.S.) orMaster of Applied Science (M.A.Sc.) degree.
Some mining engineers who have come from other disciplines, primarily from engineering fields (e.g.: mechanical, civil, electrical, geomatics or environmental engineering) or from science fields (e.g.: geology, geophysics, physics, geomatics, earth science, or mathematics), typically completing agraduate degree such as M.Eng, M.S., M.Sc. or M.A.Sc. in mining engineering after graduating from a differentquantitativeundergraduate program.
The fundamental subjects of mining engineering study usually include:
In theUnited States, about 14 universities offer a B.S. degree in mining and mineral engineering. The top rated universities[according to whom?] includeWest Virginia University,South Dakota School of Mines and Technology,Virginia Tech, theUniversity of Kentucky, theUniversity of Arizona,Montana Tech, andColorado School of Mines.[6] Most of these universities offer M.S. and Ph.D. degrees.
InCanada, there are 19 undergraduate degree programs in mining engineering or equivalent.[7]McGill University Faculty of Engineering offers both undergraduate (B.Sc., B.Eng.) and graduate (M.Sc., Ph.D.) degrees in Mining Engineering.[8][9] and theUniversity of British Columbia inVancouver offers aBachelor of Applied Science (B.A.Sc.) in Mining Engineering[10] and also graduate degrees (M.A.Sc. or M.Eng and Ph.D.) in Mining Engineering.[11][promotion?]
InEurope, most programs are integrated (B.S. plus M.S. into one) after theBologna Process and take five years to complete. InPortugal, theUniversity of Porto offers an M.Eng. in Mining and Geo-Environmental Engineering[12] and inSpain theTechnical University of Madrid offers degrees in Mining Engineering with tracks in Mining Technology, Mining Operations, Fuels and Explosives, Metallurgy.[13] In theUnited Kingdom, TheCamborne School of Mines offers a wide choice of BEng and MEng degrees in Mining engineering and other Mining related disciplines. This is done through theUniversity of Exeter.[14] InRomania, theUniversity of Petroșani (formerly known as thePetroşani Institute of Mines, or rarely as thePetroşani Institute of Coal) is the only university that offers a degree in Mining Engineering, Mining Surveying or Underground Mining Constructions, albeit, after the closure ofJiu Valley coal mines, those degrees had fallen out of interest for most high-school graduates.[15]
InSouth Africa, leading institutions include theUniversity of Pretoria, offering a 4-year Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng in Mining Engineering) as well as post-graduate studies in various specialty fields such as rock engineering and numerical modelling, explosives engineering, ventilation engineering, underground mining methods and mine design;[16] and theUniversity of the Witwatersrand offering a 4-yearBachelor of Science in Engineering (B.Sc.(Eng.)) in Mining Engineering[17] as well as graduate programs (M.Sc.(Eng.) and Ph.D.) in Mining Engineering.[18]
Some mining engineers go on to pursueDoctorate degree programs such asDoctor of Philosophy (Ph.D., DPhil),Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng., Eng.D.). These programs involve a significant original research component and are usually seen as entry points intoacademia.
In theRussian Federation, 85 universities across all federal districts are training specialists for the mineral resource sector. 36 universities are training specialists for extracting and processing solid minerals (mining). 49 are training specialists for extracting, primary processing, and transporting liquid and gaseous minerals (oil and gas). 37 are training specialists for geological exploration (applied geology, geological exploration). Among the universities that train specialists for the mineral resource sector, 7 are federal universities, and 13 are national research universities of Russia.[19] Personnel training for the mineral resource sector in Russian universities is currently carried out in the following main specializations of training (specialist's degree): "Applied Geology" with the qualification of mining engineer (5 years of training); "Geological Exploration" with the qualification of mining engineer (5 years of training); "Mining" with the qualification of mining engineer (5.5 years of training); "Physical Processes in Mining or Oil and Gas Production" with the qualification of mining engineer (5.5 years of training); "Oil and Gas Engineering and Technologies" with the qualification of mining engineer (5.5 years of training). Universities develop and implement the main professional educational programs of higher education in the directions and specializations of training by forming their profile (name of the program). For example, within the framework of the specialization "Mining", universities often adhere to the classical names of the programs "Open-pit mining", "Underground mining of mineral deposits", "Surveying", "Mineral enrichment", "Mining machines", "Technological safety and mine rescue", "Mine and underground construction", "Blasting work", "Electrification of the mining industry", etc. In the last ten years, under the influence of various factors, new names of programs have begun to appear, such as: "Mining and geological information systems", "Mining ecology", etc. Thus, universities, using their freedom to form new training programs for specialists, can look to the future and try to foresee new professions of mining engineers. After the specialist's degree, you can immediately enrol in postgraduate school (analogue ofDoctorate degree programs, four years of training).[19]
Similar to other types of engineers, mining engineers have a relatively high salary in comparison to other career fields. Mining engineering is also a stable job market to enter, with job openings being almost always readily available.
Jobgrowth
As a general trend, salaries of mining engineers have been increasing throughout the world. The job is estimated to grow between 2-5% depending on the source, which is slower than most jobs.[20][21] Although the job growth is small compared to the average growth rate of 14%, there are still many available job openings in the mining industry. This is due to the relatively low number of graduates, and the constant flow of people retiring from the workforce.
Jobstability
Mining engineering has extremely high job stability relative to other career paths. Since many industries require mined materials to function, there will always be a need for the mining industry. However, there are concerns about a workforce shortage caused by many people retiring from the industry within the next 10 years.[22] With the current predicted number of employees entering the field, there will not be enough to replace those who are retiring as well as fill the need for new employees from industry growth.[22]
Salary
Mining engineer salaries have been rising globally, with engineers in the United States, Canada, and Australia making the highest earnings relatively.[21] Mining engineers are among the highest-paid engineer grouping, typically placing in the top 10 of most charts. This can partially be attributed to petroleum engineering, a subset of mining engineering, which is particularly lucrative due to high market demand for petroleum.[23][24]
| Country | Average Salary |
|---|---|
| United States | $121,945 |
| Canada | $125,934 |
| Bahamas | $86,212 |
| Bulgaria | лв 49,124 |
| China | ¥ 360,032 |
| Czech Republic | Kč 1,063,590 |
| Ecuador | $37,401 |
| France | €78,633 |
| Germany | €94,959 |
| Hong Kong SAR | $708,776 |
As there is considerable capital expenditure required for mining operations, an array of pre-mining activities are normally carried out to assess whether a mining operation would be worthwhile.
Mineral exploration is the process of locating minerals and assessing their concentrations (grade) and quantities (tonnage), to determine if they are commercially viableores formining. Mineral exploration is much more intensive, organized, involved, and professional than mineralprospecting – though it frequently utilizes services exploration, enlistinggeologists andsurveyors in the necessary pre-feasibility study of the possible mining operation. Mineral exploration andestimation of the reserve can determine the profitability conditions and advocate the form and type of mining required.[citation needed]
Mineral discovery can be made from research of mineral maps, academic geological reports, or government geological reports. Other sources of information include propertyassays and local word of mouth. Mineral research usually includes sampling and analysing sediments, soil, and drill cores. Soil sampling and analysis is one of the most popular mineral exploration tools.[26][27] Other common tools include satellite and aerial surveys or airborne geophysics, including magneto-metric and gamma-spectrometric maps.[28] Unless the mineral exploration is done on public property, the owners of the property may play a significant role in the exploration process and might be the original discoverers of the mineral deposit.[29]
After a prospective mineral is located, the mining geologist and engineer determine the ore properties. This may involve chemical analysis of the ore to determine the sample's composition. Once the mineral properties are identified, the next step is determining the quantity of the ore. This involves determining the extent of the deposit and the purity of the ore.[30] The geologist drills additional core samples to find the limits of the deposit or seam and estimates the quantity of valuable material present.
Once the mineral identification and reserve amount are reasonably determined, the next step is to determine thefeasibility of recovering the mineral deposit. A preliminary survey shortly after the discovery of the deposit examines the market conditions, such as the supply and demand of the mineral, the amount of ore needed to be moved to recover a certain quantity of that mineral, and analysis of the cost associated with the operation. This pre-feasibility study determines whether the mining project is likely to be profitable; if so, a more in-depth analysis of the deposit is undertaken. After the full extent of the ore body is known and has been examined by engineers, the feasibility study examines the cost of initial capital investment, methods of extraction, the cost of operation, an estimated length of time to pay back the investment, the gross revenue and netprofit margin, any possible resale price of the land, the total life of the reserve, the full value of the account, investment in future projects, and the property owner or owners' contract. In addition, environmental impact,reclamation, possible legal ramifications, and all government permitting are considered.[31][32] These steps of analysis determine whether the mining company and its investors should proceed with the extraction of the minerals or whether the project should be abandoned. The mining company may decide to sell the rights to the reserve to a third party rather than develop it themselves. Alternatively, the decision to proceed with extraction may be postponed indefinitely until market conditions become favourable.
Mining engineers working in an established mine may work as an engineer for operations improvement, furthermineral exploration, and operation capitalization by determining where in the mine to add equipment and personnel. The engineer may also work in supervision and management or as an equipment and mineral salesperson. In addition to engineering and operations, the mining engineer may work as an environmental, health, and safety manager or design engineer.
The act of mining requires different methods of extraction depending on themineralogy,geology, and location of the resources. Characteristics such asmineral hardness, the mineralstratification, and access to that mineral will determine the method of extraction.
Generally, mining is either done from the surface or underground. Mining can also occur with surface and covert operations on the same reserve. Mining activity varies as to what method is employed to remove the mineral.
Surface mining comprises 90% of the world's mineral tonnage output. Also calledopen pit mining, surface mining removes minerals in formations near the surface. Ore retrieval is done by material removal from the land in its natural state. Surface mining often alters the land's characteristics, shape,topography, and geological makeup.
Surface mining involves quarrying and excavating minerals through cutting, cleaving, and breaking machinery.Explosives are usually used to facilitate breakage. Hard rocks such as limestone, sand, gravel, and slate are generally quarried into benches.
Using mechanical shovels, track dozers, and front-end loaders, strip mining is done on softer minerals such as clays and phosphate removed. Smoother coal seams can also be extracted this way.
Withplacer mining, dredge mining can also remove minerals from the bottoms of lakes, rivers, streams, and even the ocean. In addition,in-situ mining can be done from the surface using dissolving agents on the ore body and retrieving the ore via pumping. The pumped material is then set to leach for further processing. Hydraulic mining is utilized as water jets to wash away either overburden or the ore itself.[33]
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Legal attention to health and safety in mining began in the late 19th century with general safety codes being added to most mining environments. Since then, it has become a widespread practice across the world to have specific, detailed mine safety regulations. This is important because working in the mining field presents many dangers to workers and having safety codes minimizes potential workplace accidents.
Mining engineers, as employees of the mines, have to follow these safety codes in their work. Mine safety engineers, a subset of mining engineers, specifically with creating and implementing these safety regulations. They work with the documentation and analysis of mining disasters to ensure that, when possible, the same mistakes are not repeated twice.
The United States Congress, through the passage of the FederalMine Safety and Health Act of 1977, known as the Miner's Act, created theMine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) under theUS Department of Labour. The act provides miners with rights against retaliation for reporting violations, consolidated regulation of coal mines with metallic and non-metallic mines, and created the independentFederal Mine Safety and Health Review Commission to review violations reported to MSHA.[35]
The act codified in Code of Federal Regulations § 30 (CFR § 30) covers all miners at an active mine. When a mining engineer works at an active mine, they are subject to the same rights, violations, mandatory health and safety regulations, and compulsory training as any other worker at the mine. The mining engineer can be legally identified as a "miner".[36]
The act establishes the rights of miners. The miner may report at any time a hazardous condition and request an inspection. The miners may elect a miners' representative to participate during an inspection, pre-inspection meeting, and post-inspection conference. The miners and miners' representatives shall be paid for their time during all inspections and investigations.[37]
A large portion of India’s mining industry is regulated by the Mines Act of 1952 and the Mine Rules of 1955.[38] These codes outline all of the operational, health and safety standards that all mines must follow. Some subsections, such as the Coal Mine Regulation of 2017, have been created to outline practices in more niche subsections of mining. This enforcement of these codes is managed by the Directorate-General of Mines Safety (DGMS) under the Union Ministry of Labour & Employment (MOL&E). Since these outlines are laws, they can also have legal consequences such as fines, mining license revocation, and imprisonment.[39] Mining engineers work closely to ensure that these codes are followed on an individual scale.
The Mines Act of 1952 outlines the proper procedure for the operation of mines and implements their health and safety standards. One example of this is the implementation of a mandatory day of rest for workers, which prevents workers from working more than six days out of a week. An example of a safety standard is the requirement for proper first aid kit components for the kits that should be present in every mine.
This act also notes the beginning of the practice of documenting health and safety in incidents in mines. Since these incidents have started being recorded, the number of accidents in coal mines has consistently dropped.[40] The main categories currently being reported on are fatalities and serious accidents, uncategorized by type or cause of accident. Mining engineers work on the reporting of these incidents and seek to create regulations that will prevent future incidents from occurring.
This act clarifies the legal structure and consequences of health and safety regulation of mines in India. It defines what reports are needed for and from employees as well as what documentation should be taken in mines. This can include medical records, inspection documents, and mining licensure.
The act also outlines welfare and benefits that should be given to all employees working in the mines. This includes the need for welfare management staff in all mines that employ more than 500 employees.[41] Mining engineers also receive these benefits.
Legislation on the inspection and safety of mines in Australia can be dated back to the early 1900s with the Mine and Works Inspection Act of 1920 from South Australia. There is also a large increase in legislation starting around 1999 and continuing into the present day throughout the rest of the states and territories.[42]
Most of the states and territories of Australia also follow the WHS, a largely uniform code that details health and safety in the workplace. The WHS (Work Health and Safety) of mines in Australia is overseen by states and territories rather than the central government, so there can be minor discrepancies between each state or territory’s code.[42] Beyond this, many of the states and territories have also enforced additional regulations on mines specifically in their legislation.
Mining engineers in Australia, like in other countries, closely monitor and create accident reports. Being the country with the 3rd largest total of coal reserves in the world, there is a large subsection of mining engineers who work specifically with coal mines and coal mine-related disasters. (6)
| State/Territory | Mining Legislation |
|---|---|
| New South Wales | Work Health and Safety Act 2011 Work Health and Safety Regulation 2017 Work Health and Safety (Mines and Petroleum Sites) Act 2013 Work Health and Safety (Mines and Petroleum Sites) Act 2022 |
| Victoria | Chapter 5.3 of the Occupational Health and Safety Regulations 2017 |
| Queensland | Work Health and Safety Act 2011 Work Heath and Safety Regulation 2011 Mining and Quarrying Safety and Health Act 1999 Mining and Quarrying Safety and Health Regulation 2017 Coal Mining Safety and Health Act 1999 Coal Mining Safety and Health Regulation 2017 |
| Western Australia | Work health and Safety Act 2020 Work Health and Safety (General) Regulations 2022 Work Health and Safety (Mines) Regulations 2022 |
| South Australia | Work Health and Safety Act 2012 Work Health and Safety Regulations 2012 Mines and Works Inspections Act 1920 Mines and Works Inspections Regulations 2013 |
| Tasmania | Work Health and Safety Act 2012 Work Health and Safety Regulations 2022 Mines Work Health and Safety (Supplementary Requirements) Act 2012 Mines Work Health and Safety (Supplementary Requirements) Regulations 2022 |
| Australian Capital Territory | Work Health and Safety Act 2011 Work Health and Safety Regulation 2011 |
| Northern Territory | Work Health and Safety (National Uniform Legislation) Act 2011 Chapter 10 (Mines) of the Work Health and Safety (National Uniform Legislation) Regulations 2011 |
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Waste and uneconomic material generated from themineral extraction process are the primary source ofpollution in the vicinity of mines. Mining activities, by their nature, cause a disturbance of thenatural environment in and around which theminerals are located. Mining engineers should therefore be concerned not only with the production and processing of mineralproducts but also with the mitigation of damage to the environment both during and after mining as a result of the change in the mining area.
This article incorporatestext by Petrov, V. L. available under theCC BY 4.0 license.
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