Minerva (/mɪˈnɜːrvə/;Latin:[mɪˈnɛru̯ä];Etruscan:Menrva) is theRoman goddess ofwisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. She is also a goddess of warfare, though with a focus on strategic warfare, rather than the violence of gods such asMars.[1] Beginning in the second century BC, theRomansequated her with the GreekgoddessAthena.[2] Minerva is one of the three Roman deities in theCapitoline Triad, along withJupiter andJuno.
Minerva is avirgin goddess. Her domain includes music,poetry,medicine,wisdom,commerce,weaving, and thecrafts.[3] Minerva is often depicted with her sacred creature, an owl usually named the "owl of Minerva"[4] which symbolised her association with wisdom and knowledge, as well as, less frequently, the snake and theolive tree. Minerva is commonly depicted as tall with an athletic and muscular build. She is often wearing armour and carrying a spear. As an important Roman goddess, she is highly revered, honored, and respected.[5]Marcus Terentius Varro considered her to be ideal and the plan for the universe personified.[6]
The nameMinerva stems fromProto-Italic*meneswo ("intelligent, understanding"), and ultimately fromProto-Indo-European (PIE)*menos ("thought").Helmut Rix (1981) and Gerhard Meiser (1998) have proposed the PIE derivative*menes-ueh₂ ("provided with a mind, intelligent") as the transitional form.[7]
The myth of Minerva's birth follows that of Athena. Jupiter raped thetitaness Metis, which resulted in her attempting to change shape (orshapeshift) to escape him. Jupiter then recalled the prophecy that his own child would overthrow him, just as he himself had overthrown his fatherSaturn, and in turn, Saturn had overthrown his fatherCaelus. Fearing that their child would be male, and would grow stronger than he was and rule the Heavens in his place, Jupiter swallowed Metis whole after tricking her into turning herself into a fly. The Titaness gave birth to Minerva and forged weapons and armour for her child while within Jupiter's body. The constant pounding and ringing left Jupiter with agonizing pain. To relieve the pain,Vulcan used a hammer to split Jupiter's head and, from the cleft, Minerva emerged, as a grown adult and in full battle armour.
Minerva is a prominent figure inRoman mythology. She appears in many famous myths. Many of the stories of her Greek counterpartAthena are attributed to Minerva in Roman mythology, such as that of the naming of Athens[8] resulting from a competition between Minerva andNeptune,[9] in which Minerva created the olive tree.[1]
Arachne was a mortal highly proficient in weaving and embroidery. Not only were her finished works beautiful, but also her process, so much so thatnymphs would come out of their natural environments to watch her work. Arachne boasted that her skills could beat those of Minerva, and if she were wrong she would pay the price for it. This angered Minerva, and she took the form of an old woman to approach Arachne, offering her a chance to take back her challenge and ask forgiveness.[9] When Arachne refused, Minerva rid herself of her disguise and took Arachne up on her challenge. Arachne began to weave a tapestry that showed the shortcomings of the gods, while Minerva depicted her competition with Neptune and the gods looking down with disgust on mortals who would dare to challenge them.[9] Minerva's weaving was meant as a final warning to her foe to back down. Minerva was insulted by the scenes that Arachne was weaving, and destroyed it. She then touched Arachne on the forehead, which made her feel shame for what she had done, leading her to hang herself. Minerva then felt bad for the woman, and brought her back to life. However, Minerva transformed her into a spider as punishment for her actions, and hanging from a web would forever be a reminder to Arachne of her actions that offended the gods. This story also acted as a warning to mortals not to challenge the gods.[1]
Medusa was once a beautiful human girl with magnificent hair, she was also a priestess of Minerva. Neptune was obsessed with her and lusted after her. One day Neptune was watching her pray in the Temple of Minerva and decided to act upon his lustful obsession. He forced himself on Medusa but she was not strong enough to fight him off. Minerva was furious this took place in her temple and she turned Medusa into a monster, replacing her hair with hissing snakes and removing her charm. Medusa turned any living creature she looked upon into stone. Neptune was not ever confronted for his wrongdoings to Medusa. WhenPerseus approached Medusa he used her reflection in his shield to avoid contact with her eyes, and then beheaded her. Medusa’s spilt blood gave birth to Pegasus; which Minerva immediately tamed and gifted toBellerophon.[8] He delivered the severed head to Minerva, who placed its image on herAegis.[1]
WhenPerseus beheadedMedusa some of the blood spilled onto the ground, and from it camePegasus. Minerva caught the horse and tamed it before gifting the horse to theMuses. It was a kick from the hoof of Pegasus that opened the fountainHippocrene.[9] WhenBellerophon later went to fight theChimera he sought to use Pegasus in the fight. In order to do this he slept in Minerva's temple, and she came to him with a golden bridle. When Pegasus saw Bellerophon with the bridle the horse immediately allowed Bellerophon to mount, and they defeated the Chimera.[1]
Metamorphoses byOvid tell the story of Minerva andAglauros. WhenMercury comes to seduce mortal virginHerse, her sister Aglauros is driven by her greed to help him. Minerva discovers this and is furious with Aglauros. She seeks the assistance ofEnvy, who fills Aglauros with so much envy for the good fortune of others that sheturns to stone. Mercury fails to seduce Herse.[9]
Minerva assisted the heroUlysses. Hyginus describes in his workFabulae that Minerva changes Odysseus' appearance in order to protect and assist him multiple times (126).[8]
Minerva is thought to have invented theflute by piercing holes into boxwood. She enjoyed the music, but became embarrassed by how it made her face look when her cheeks puffed out to play. Because of this she threw it away and it landed on a riverbank where it was found by asatyr.[10]
The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day that is called, in the neuter plural,Quinquatria, the fifth day after the Ides of March, the nineteenth, anartisans' holiday. This festival was of deepest importance to artists and craftsmen as she was the patron goddess of crafting and arts.[11] According toOvid (Fasti 3.809) the festival was 5 days long, and the first day was said to be the anniversary of Minerva's birth, so no blood was to be shed. The following four days were full of games of "drawn swords" in honour of Minerva's military association.[12] Suetonius tells us (Life of Domitian 4.4) that Domitian celebrated theQuinquatria by appointing a college of priests who were to stage plays and animal games in addition to poetry and oratory competitions.[13] A lesser version, theMinusculae Quinquatria, was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by theflute-players, as Minerva was thought to have invented the flute.[10] In 207 BC, aguild of poets and actors was formed to meet and makevotive offerings at the temple of Minerva on theAventine Hill. Among others, its members includedLivius Andronicus. The Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middleRoman Republic.
AsMinerva Medica, she was the goddess of medicine and physicians. AsMinerva Achaea, she was worshipped atLucera inApulia wherevotive gifts and arms said to be those ofDiomedes were preserved in her temple.[14][15]
According to theActa Arvalia, a cow was sacrificed to Minerva on October 13 58 AD along with many other sacrifices to celebrate the anniversary of Nero coming to power. On January 3 81 AD, as a part of the New Year vows, two cows were sacrificed to Minerva (among many others) to secure the well-being of the emperor Titus, Domitian Caesar, Julia Augusta, and their children. On January 3 87 AD there is again record of a cow being sacrificed to Minerva among the many sacrifices made as a part of the New Year vows.[16]
InFasti III,Ovid called her the "goddess of a thousand works"[12] due to all of the things she was associated with. Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, she also became a goddess of battle. Unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph and battle lust. In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere.[17]
According toLivy'sHistory of Rome (7.3), the annual nail marking the year, a process where the praetor maximus drove a nail in to formally keep track of the current year, happened in the temple of Minerva because she was thought to have invented numbers.[18][19]
There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Minerva was worshipped not only in a formal civic fashion, but also by individuals on a more personal level.[19]
Minerva is featured on the coinage of differentRoman emperors. She often is represented on the reverse side of a coin holding an owl and a spear among her attributes.[20]
Duringthe Roman occupation of Britain, it was common for carpenters to own tools ornamented with images of Minerva to invoke a greater amount of protection from the goddess of crafts. Some women would also have images of her on accessories such as hairpins or jewellery. She was even featured on some funerary art on coffins and signet rings.[21]
During Roman rule, Minerva became equated with the Celtic goddessSulis, to the degree where their names were used both together and interchangeably.[21] She was believed to preside over the healing hot springs located inBath.[22] Though Minerva is not a water deity, her association with intellectual professions asMinerva Medica she could also be thought of as a healing goddess, the epigraphic evidence present makes it clear that this is how Minerva was thought of in Bath.[22]
Some of the archaeological evidence present in Bath leads scholars to believe that it was thought Minerva could provide full healing from things such as rheumatism via the hot springs if she was given full credit for the healing.[21]
The temple of Sulis Minerva was known for having a miraculous altar-fire that burned coal as opposed to the traditional wood.[21]
Stemming from an Italic moon goddess*Meneswā ('She who measures'), theEtruscans adopted the inherited Old Latin name,*Menerwā, thereby calling herMenrva. It is presumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on thisEtruscan mythology. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools, justice and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to GreekAthena. Like Athena, Minerva burst from the head of her father, Jupiter (GreekZeus), who had devoured her mother (Metis) in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent her birth.
By a process offolk etymology, the Romans could have linked her foreign name to therootmen- inLatinwords such asmens meaning "mind", perhaps because one of her aspects as goddess pertained to the intellectual. The wordmens is built from theProto-Indo-European root*men- 'mind' (linked with memory as in GreekMnemosyne/μνημοσύνη andmnestis/μνῆστις: memory, remembrance, recollection,manush in Sanskrit meaning mind).
The Etruscan Menrva was part of a holytriad withTinia andUni, equivalent to the RomanCapitoline Triad of Jupiter-Juno-Minerva.
Minerva as depicted on the United States ArmyMedal of Honor
TheSeal of California depicts the Goddess Minerva. Her birth fully-grown parallels California becoming a state without first being a territory.[23]
The U.S MilitaryMedal of Honor for the Army, Navy/Marine Corps, and Coast Guard depicts Minerva in the center of it. The Air Force uses the head of theStatue of Liberty instead.[24]
Minerva is depicted onThe Apotheosis of Washington, a fresco painted by Greek-Italian artist Constantino Brumidi in 1865 and visible through the oculus of the dome in the rotunda of the United States Capitol Building in Washington, D.C.
A statue to Minerva was designed byJohn Charles Felix Rossi to adorn the Town Hall ofLiverpool, where it has stood since 1799. It remains extant and was restored as part of the 2014 renovations conducted by the city.[26][27]
A statue of Minerva stands atop the Ballaarat Mechanics' Institute inBallarat, Victoria, Australia. There is also a mosaic tile of Minerva in the foyer of the building as well as a whole theatre name after her, called the 'Minerva Space'.[36]
A statue of Minerva releasing an owl stands at Manderson Landing Park in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The statue was gifted by the University of Alabama to the community in 2019 as a commemoration of the City of Tuscaloosa's bicentennial year.[37] Minerva also features on the University of Alabama's seal.
She is remembered inDe Mulieribus Claris, a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by theFlorentine authorGiovanni Boccaccio, composed in 1361–62. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.[38] PoetElizabeth Carter is famously portrayed in an outfit inspired by Minerva, and also wrote poems in her honour.
^Augustine, of Hippo, Saint, 354–430. (2008) [1950].The city of God. Catholic University of America Press.ISBN978-0-8132-1108-4.OCLC647919892.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^abcdHenig, Martin (1984).Religion in Roman Britain. London: Batsford.
^abcSauer, Eberhard (March 1996). "An Inscription from Northern Italy, the Roman Temple Complex in Bath and Minerva as a Healing Goddess in Gallo-Roman Religion".Oxford Journal of Archaeology.15:63–93.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1996.tb00074.x.
^Boccaccio, Giovanni (2003).Famous Women. I Tatti Renaissance Library. Vol. 1. Translated by Virginia Brown. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. xi.ISBN0-674-01130-9.
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