Minerva (/mɪˈnɜːrvə/;Latin:[mɪˈnɛru̯ä];Etruscan:Menrva) is theRoman goddess ofwisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. She is also a goddess of warfare, though with a focus on strategic warfare, rather than the violence of gods such asMars.[1] Beginning in the second century BC, theRomansequated her with the GreekgoddessAthena.[2] Minerva is one of the three Roman deities in theCapitoline Triad, along withJupiter andJuno.
Minerva is avirgin goddess. Her domain includesmedicine,wisdom,commerce,weaving, and thecrafts. Minerva is often depicted with her sacred creature, an owl usually named the "owl of Minerva",[3] which symbolised her association with wisdom and knowledge, as well as, less frequently, the snake and theolive tree. Minerva is commonly depicted as tall with an athletic and muscular build. She is often wearing armour and carrying a spear. As an important Roman goddess, she is highly revered, honored, and respected.[4]Marcus Terentius Varro considered her to be ideal and the plan for the universe personified.[5]
The nameMinerva possibly derives fromProto-Italic*menezwo-, and perhaps ultimately fromProto-Indo-European (PIE)*ménos ("thought").Helmut Rix (1981) and Gerhard Meiser (1998) have proposed the PIE derivative*menes-weh₂ ("provided with a mind, intelligent") as the transitional form.[6] However, the linguistBenjamin W. Fortson IV criticizes the connection with the root*men- ("to think"), arguing that the connections between Minerva and wisdom emerged at a later date under the influence of Athena.[7] Another hypothesis, advanced by the linguistRanko Matasović, connects the term with a possible Proto-Indo-European term*méh₁nos- ("moon"). Alternatively, the name of the goddess may not derive from Indo-European—it may be a borrowing fromEtruscan.[8]
According to theEncyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Minerva constitutes a type of "transfunctional goddess", a mythic archetype common throughoutIndo-European cultures in which a goddess simultaneously is associated with warfare, a priesthood, and agricultural activity.[9] The religious role of Minerva can be compared to deities such asIranianAnahaita orIrishMacha, though these goddesses cannot be derived from a singular divinity in the originalProto-Indo-European religion.[10] According to the archaeologist Miriam Dexter, in Indo-European mythologies, war goddesses such as Minerva generally do not take active roles as fighters. Dexter argues that Minerva, though associated with military functions, operates more as a general.[11]
Through her role in theCapitoline Triad, Minerva may distantly reflect the proposed construct ofProto-Indo-European trifunctionality.[12] However, according to the trifunctional theory, it is likely that Minerva supplanted a preexisting deity, perhapsQuirinus, within a hypotheticalArchaic triad.[13] The place of Minerva within the Capitoline Triad may also be attested forFaliscan religion, as one inscription from Faliscan emigrants inSardinia dated to the 2nd-century BCE mentions the deities[di]ouei,iunonei, andmineruai.[14][15] Minerva may have acquired her role in the Capitoline triad under Etruscan influence, as a similar set of Etruscan deities consisting ofTinia,Uni, andMenrva is known to have existed.[16] Minerva has been interpreted as a borrowing from Menrva,[17] though it is also possible that the Etruscan deity was a borrowing from Minerva.[18] The Roman 1st-century BCEVarro author attributesSabine origins to the goddess, writing "Feronia, Minerva, and theNovensides are from the Sabines."[19]
The name Minerva may also have been uncovered in an Oscan inscription which may contain the termmenere(vas).[6] However, the philologistCarl Darling Buck argues that therhotacism indicates that the word, and possibly the cult of the goddess itself, was borrowed from another Italic dialect—perhaps Latin. Similarly, the nameminerua has also been uncovered on aPaelignian inscription, though Buck likewise argues that this term was borrowed from another Italic language.[20] In contrast, the linguistMichiel de Vaan notes that the rhotacism could reflect a Proto-Italic sound shift of*-sw- to*-rw-, which may also be attested in terms such asacervus.[6] Nevertheless, the purported existence of this sound change in Proto-Italic remains controversial.[7]
Archaeological excavations at a sanctuary inLavinium revealedterracotta statues depicting Minerva dating to the 4th-century BCE, indicating the existence of a contemporary cult of the goddess. Other terracotta statuettes from the site varyingly portray unveiled girls with short hair and veiled women with expensive adornments, which likely represent unmarried and married women respectively. Though these votives appear to be nativelyItalic, some of the veiled women are depicted with accompanyingdoves, a design element perhaps attributable to the influence of GreekAphrodite. Additional finds from the sanctuary include figurines ofswaddled infants and votive depictions of breasts and wombs, all of which reinforce the prominence of childbirth at the site.[21] According to the archaeologist Fritz Graf, the evidence from this sanctuary indicates that Minerva operated as a guardian of young women during the transition into marriage and motherhood.[21] The theme of transition was not, however exclusive to women—votive items from Lavinium portray young men adorned with abulla offering toys.[22]
The connections between Minerva and childbirth at Lavinium could be construed as a distinction between the Roman divinity and the Greek goddess Athena, who was a virgin deity that actively avoided attempts at procreation, such as in the story of the mythical birth ofErichthonius.[23] However, Graf suggests that the childrearing associations may have emerged from the shared characteristic of Athena and Minerva as guardians of young women during transitional phases. In further support of this theory, Graf notes that none of the votives from Lavinium depict conception, arguing that they instead gesture towards potential future childbirth.[22] The role of Minerva as a protector of young women may have also contributed to her association with healing,[24] as attested at the Temple of Minerva Medica on theEsquiline Hill,[25] which contains a deposit of anatomical votives that also dates to the 4th-century BCE.[26] Alternatively, her medicinal connotations may have emerged from her role as a goddess of crafts, or perhaps due to the influence ofAthena Hygieia.[24] Though, a Greek origin for this aspect of Minerva is slightly problematic, as the connection between Athena and Hygieia was largely restricted toAthens and the Greek divinity functioned as a protector of preexisting health whereas Minerva served to actively treat illness.[24]
Numerousloom weights have also been discovered at Lavinium, possibly in relation to the traditional association of women in prehistoric Italy withweaving.[21] Alternatively, these items could be related to the function of Athena in her role asErgane("ἐργάνη," "worker"), in which she operated as a patroness of artisanship. In particular, the Greek goddess was associated with weaving at practices such as theArrhephoria—a ritual involving the weaving of thepeplos of Athena. However, the Greek ceremonies were largely reserved for a small sample of young girls, whereas the sanctuary at Lavinium was likely open to a broad swathe of the population.[23] Regardless, the connection between Athena and craftsmanship could have spurred the acquisition of similar traits for Minerva, whose sacred festival—theQuinquatria—was itself associated with artisanry.[27] Uniquely, in Rome, at least by the lateRoman Republic, the connection with craftsmanship had arisen as one of the primary characteristics of Minerva, perhaps—according to Graf—because her role as a civic goddess was already fulfilled by Jupiter. In contrast, within Greece, Athena was largely defined by her relationship with thepolis, whereas her artisanship associations were relatively minor.[26]
It is possible that the association of Minerva with the city center may have been borrowed from Athena in her capacity asPolias (Πολιάς, "of the city"), which referred to her role as a protectress of the city.[14] InPompeii, a votive deposit uncovered near thePorta Stabia contained an ancient terracotta bust that may depict Minerva. It is possible that this statue was intended to sanctify the fortifications, thereby incurring the added support of the divine to safeguard the city.[28] This particular invocation of Minerva may also reflect the influence of poliad Athena.[29]Livy, a 1st-century BCE Roman historian, describes alectisternium during which a couch ("pulvīnāria") was on display for Minerva andNeptune.[30] It is likely that the connection between these two deities also stems from Greek influence, as it mirrors the relation between Athena andPoseidon in the founding myth of Athens.[31]
Minerva is a prominent figure inRoman mythology. She appears in many famous myths. Many of the stories of her Greek counterpartAthena are attributed to Minerva in Roman mythology, such as that of the naming of Athens[32] resulting from a competition between Minerva andNeptune,[33] in which Minerva created the olive tree.[1]
The myth of Minerva's birth follows that of Athena. Jupiter raped thetitaness Metis, which resulted in her attempting to change shape (orshapeshift) to escape him. Jupiter then recalled the prophecy that his own child would overthrow him, just as he himself had overthrown his fatherSaturn, and in turn, Saturn had overthrown his fatherCaelus. Fearing that their child would be male, and would grow stronger than he was and rule the Heavens in his place, Jupiter swallowed Metis whole after tricking her into turning herself into a fly. The Titaness gave birth to Minerva and forged weapons and armour for her child while within Jupiter's body. The constant pounding and ringing left Jupiter with agonizing pain. To relieve the pain,Vulcan used a hammer to split Jupiter's head and, from the cleft, Minerva emerged, as a grown adult and in full battle armour.[citation needed]
Arachne was a mortal highly proficient in weaving and embroidery. Not only were her finished works beautiful, but also her process, so much so thatnymphs would come out of their natural environments to watch her work. Arachne boasted that her skills could beat those of Minerva, and if she were wrong she would pay the price for it. This angered Minerva, and she took the form of an old woman to approach Arachne, offering her a chance to take back her challenge and ask forgiveness.[33] When Arachne refused, Minerva rid herself of her disguise and took Arachne up on her challenge. Arachne began to weave a tapestry that showed the shortcomings of the gods, while Minerva depicted her competition with Neptune and the gods looking down with disgust on mortals who would dare to challenge them.[33] Minerva's weaving was meant as a final warning to her foe to back down. Minerva was insulted by the scenes that Arachne was weaving, and destroyed it. She then touched Arachne on the forehead, which made her feel shame for what she had done, leading her to hang herself. Minerva then felt bad for the woman, and brought her back to life. However, Minerva transformed her into a spider as punishment for her actions, and hanging from a web would forever be a reminder to Arachne of her actions that offended the gods. This story also acted as a warning to mortals not to challenge the gods.[1]
Medusa was once a beautiful human girl with magnificent hair, she was also a priestess of Minerva. Neptune was obsessed with her and lusted after her. One day Neptune was watching her pray in the Temple of Minerva and decided to act upon his lustful obsession. He forced himself on Medusa but she was not strong enough to fight him off. Minerva was furious this took place in her temple and she turned Medusa into a monster, replacing her hair with hissing snakes and removing her charm. Medusa turned any living creature she looked upon into stone. Neptune was not ever confronted for his wrongdoings to Medusa. WhenPerseus approached Medusa he used her reflection in his shield to avoid contact with her eyes, and then beheaded her. Medusa's spilt blood gave birth to Pegasus; which Minerva immediately tamed and gifted toBellerophon.[32] He delivered the severed head to Minerva, who placed its image on herAegis.[1]
WhenPerseus beheadedMedusa some of the blood spilled onto the ground, and from it camePegasus. Minerva caught the horse and tamed it before gifting the horse to theMuses. It was a kick from the hoof of Pegasus that opened the fountainHippocrene.[33] WhenBellerophon later went to fight theChimera he sought to use Pegasus in the fight. In order to do this he slept in Minerva's temple, and she came to him with a golden bridle. When Pegasus saw Bellerophon with the bridle the horse immediately allowed Bellerophon to mount, and they defeated the Chimera.[1]
Metamorphoses byOvid tell the story of Minerva andAglauros. WhenMercury comes to seduce mortal virginHerse, her sister Aglauros is driven by her greed to help him. Minerva discovers this and is furious with Aglauros. She seeks the assistance ofEnvy, who fills Aglauros with so much envy for the good fortune of others that sheturns to stone. Mercury fails to seduce Herse.[33]
Minerva assisted the heroUlysses. Hyginus describes in his workFabulae that Minerva changes Odysseus' appearance in order to protect and assist him multiple times (126).[32]
Minerva is thought to have invented theflute by piercing holes into boxwood. She enjoyed the music, but became embarrassed by how it made her face look when her cheeks puffed out to play. Because of this she threw it away and it landed on a riverbank where it was found by asatyr.[34]
The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day that is called, in the neuter plural, Quinquatria, the fifth day after the Ides of March, the nineteenth, anartisans' holiday. This festival was of deepest importance to artists and craftsmen as she was the patron goddess of crafting and arts.[35] According toOvid (Fasti 3.809) the festival was 5 days long, and the first day was said to be the anniversary of Minerva's birth, so no blood was to be shed. The following four days were full of games of "drawn swords" in honour of Minerva's military association.[36] Suetonius tells us (Life of Domitian 4.4) that Domitian celebrated the Quinquatria by appointing a college of priests who were to stage plays and animal games in addition to poetry and oratory competitions.[37] A lesser version, theMinusculae Quinquatria, was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by theflute-players, as Minerva was thought to have invented the flute.[34] In 207 BC, aguild of poets and actors was formed to meet and makevotive offerings at the temple of Minerva on theAventine Hill. Among others, its members includedLivius Andronicus. The Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middleRoman Republic.
AsMinerva Medica, she was the goddess of medicine and physicians. AsMinerva Achaea, she was worshipped atLucera inApulia wherevotive gifts and arms said to be those ofDiomedes were preserved in her temple.[38][39]
According to theActa Arvalia, a cow was sacrificed to Minerva on October 13 58 AD along with many other sacrifices to celebrate the anniversary of Nero coming to power. On January 3 81 AD, as a part of the New Year vows, two cows were sacrificed to Minerva (among many others) to secure the well-being of the emperor Titus, Domitian Caesar, Julia Augusta, and their children. On January 3 87 AD there is again record of a cow being sacrificed to Minerva among the many sacrifices made as a part of the New Year vows.[40]
InFasti III,Ovid called her the "goddess of a thousand works"[36] due to all of the things she was associated with. Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, she also became a goddess of battle. Unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph and battle lust. In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere.[41]
According toLivy'sHistory of Rome (7.3), the annual nail marking the year, a process where the praetor maximus drove a nail in to formally keep track of the current year, happened in the temple of Minerva because she was thought to have invented numbers.[42][43]
There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Minerva was worshipped not only in a formal civic fashion, but also by individuals on a more personal level.[43]
Minerva is featured on the coinage of differentRoman emperors. She often is represented on the reverse side of a coin holding an owl and a spear among her attributes.[44]
Duringthe Roman occupation of Britain, it was common for carpenters to own tools ornamented with images of Minerva to invoke a greater amount of protection from the goddess of crafts. Some women would also have images of her on accessories such as hairpins or jewellery. She was even featured on some funerary art on coffins and signet rings.[45]
During Roman rule, Minerva became equated with the Celtic goddessSulis, to the degree where their names were used both together and interchangeably.[45] She was believed to preside over the healing hot springs located inBath.[46] Though Minerva is not a water deity, her association with intellectual professions asMinerva Medica she could also be thought of as a healing goddess, the epigraphic evidence present makes it clear that this is how Minerva was thought of in Bath.[46]
Some of the archaeological evidence present in Bath leads scholars to believe that it was thought Minerva could provide full healing from things such as rheumatism via the hot springs if she was given full credit for the healing.[45]
The temple of Sulis Minerva was known for having a miraculous altar-fire that burned coal as opposed to the traditional wood.[45]
Stemming from an Italic goddess*Meneswā, theEtruscans adopted the inherited Old Latin name,*Menerwā, thereby calling herMenrva. It is presumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on thisEtruscan mythology. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools, justice and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to GreekAthena. Like Athena, Minerva burst from the head of her father, Jupiter (GreekZeus), who had devoured her mother (Metis) in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent her birth.
By a process offolk etymology, the Romans could have linked her foreign name to therootmen- inLatinwords such asmens meaning "mind", perhaps because one of her aspects as goddess pertained to the intellectual. The wordmens is built from theProto-Indo-European root*men- 'mind' (linked with memory as in GreekMnemosyne (μνημοσύνη,mnēmosúnē) andmnêstis (μνῆστις): memory, remembrance, recollection,manush in Sanskrit meaning mind).[citation needed]
The Etruscan Menrva was part of a holytriad withTinia andUni, equivalent to the RomanCapitoline Triad of Jupiter-Juno-Minerva.
^Augustine, of Hippo, Saint, 354–430. (2008) [1950].The city of God. Catholic University of America Press.ISBN978-0-8132-1108-4.OCLC647919892.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^abcdHenig, Martin (1984).Religion in Roman Britain. London: Batsford.
^abcSauer, Eberhard (March 1996). "An Inscription from Northern Italy, the Roman Temple Complex in Bath and Minerva as a Healing Goddess in Gallo-Roman Religion".Oxford Journal of Archaeology.15:63–93.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1996.tb00074.x.
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