Amilitia (/mɪˈlɪʃə/mil-ISH-ə)[1] is amilitary orparamilitaryforce that comprisescivilian members, as opposed to a professionalstanding army ofregular, full-timemilitary personnel. Militias may be raised in times of need to support regular troops or serve as a pool of available manpower for regular forces to draw from.
When acting independently, militias are generally unable to hold ground against regular forces. Militias commonly support regular troops byskirmishing, holding fortifications, or conductingirregular warfare, instead of undertaking offensive campaigns by themselves. However, militias may also engage in defense activities to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws.[2] For example,naval militias may comprise fishermen and other civilians which are organized and sanctioned by a state to enforce itsmaritime boundaries.[3]
Beginning in the late 20th century, some militias (in particular officially recognized and sanctioned militias of a government) act as professional forces, while still being part-time or on-call organizations. For instance, members of the part-timeUnited States National Guard militia are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to the same standards that their full-time, active duty counterparts are.[1] Militias may nonetheless operate outside of a state's legal jurisdiction, taking the form of aprivate military force,irregular military, orguerilla forces.[4]
In countries withconscription, the term "militia" may refer to the entire able-bodied population available, legally obliged, or who actually respond to be called to arms. InRussia and some countries of the formerSoviet Union, an official reserve army composed of citizensoldiers is known as themilitsiya.
Militia derives fromLatin roots:
The wordmilitia dates back to ancient Rome, and more recently to at least 1590 when it was recorded in a book by Sir John Smythe,Certain Discourses Military with the meanings: a military force; a body of soldiers and military affairs; a body of military discipline[8]The word Militia comes from ancient Latin, in which it meant defense service, as distinguished from a body of (armed) defenders which would bevolgus militum. The term is used by several countries with the meaning of "defense activity" indicating it is taken directly from Latin.
The first notable militia in French history was the resistance of theGauls to invasion by theRomans until they were defeated by Julius Caesar.[9] Centuries later,Joan of Arc organized and led a militia until her capture and execution in 1431. This settled the succession to the French crown and laid the basis for the formation of the modern nation of France.[10]
During theFrench Revolution theNational Guard was a political home defense militia. Thelevée en masse was a conscription army used during the Revolutionary andNapoleonic Wars.
At the time of theFranco-Prussian War, the Parisian National Guard engaged the Prussian Army and later rebelled against the Versailles Army under Marshal McMahon.
Under German occupation during World War II, a militia usually called theFrench Resistance emerged to conduct a guerrilla war of attrition against German forces and prepare the way for theD-Day Allied Invasion of France.[11] The Resistance militia were opposed by the collaborationistFrench Militia—the paramilitary police force of theGerman puppet state of Vichy.
Although defunct from 1871 until 2016, the French National Guard has now been reestablished for homeland security purposes.[12]
The earliest reports of Germanic militias was the system ofhundreds described in AD 98 by the Roman historianTacitus as thecenteni. They were similar in nature to theAnglo-Saxonfyrd.
Freikorps (German for "Free Corps") was originally applied to voluntary armies. The firstFreikorps were recruited byFrederick II of Prussia during theSeven Years' War. These troops were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so they were mainly used as sentries and for minor duties. During the Napoleonic occupation, organizations such as theLutzow Free Corps fought against the occupiers and later joined the allied forces as regular soldiers.
However, after 1918, the term was used fornationalistparamilitary organizations that sprang up aroundGermany as soldiers returned in defeat fromWorld War I. They were one of the manyWeimar paramilitary groups active during that time. They received considerable support fromGustav Noske, the German Defence Minister who used them to crush theSpartakist League with enormous violence, including the murders ofKarl Liebknecht andRosa Luxemburg on January 15, 1919. Militia were also used to put down theBavarian Soviet Republic in 1919. They were officially "disbanded" in 1920, resulting in the ill-fatedKapp Putsch in March 1920. TheEinwohnerwehr, active in Germany from 1919 to 1921 was a paramilitary citizens' militia consisting of hundreds of thousands of mostly former servicemen.[13] Formed by the Prussian Ministry of the Interior on April 15, 1919, to allow citizens to protect themselves from looters, armed gangs, and revolutionaries, theEinwohnerwehr was under the command of the localReichswehr regiments, which supplied its guns. In 1921, the Berlin government dissolved theEinwohnerwehr. Many of its members went on to join theNazi Party.[14]
In 1921 the Nazi Party created theSturmabteilung (SA; Storm Detachment; Brownshirts), which was the first paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party and served as a Nazi militia whose initial assignment was to protect Nazi leaders at rallies and assemblies. The SA also took part in street battles against the forces of rival political parties and violent actions against Jews. From the SA sprung theSchutzstaffel (SS; Protective Squadron) which grew to become one of the largest and most powerful groups inNazi Germany, which Reichsführer-SSHeinrich Himmler (the leader of the SS from 1929) envisioned as an elite group of guards. TheWaffen-SS, the military branch of the SS, became a de facto fourth branch of theWehrmacht.[15]
In 1944–1945, asWorld War II came to a close in Europe, theGerman high command deployed increasing numbers ofVolkssturm units to combat duties. These regiments were composed of men, women and children too old, young or otherwise unfit for service in the Wehrmacht (German Regular Army).[16] Their primary role was assisting the army with fortification duties and digginganti-tank ditches. As the shortage of manpower became severe, they were used as front line infantry, most often inurban settings. Due to the physical state of members, almost non-existent training and shortage of weapons, there was not much theVolkssturm could do except act like shields for regular army units.
The obligation to serve in the militia (also known as theConstitutional Force) in England derives from acommon law tradition, and dates back toAnglo-Saxon times. The tradition was that all able-bodied males were liable to be called out to serve in one of two organisations. These were theposse comitatus, anad hoc assembly called together by a law officer to apprehend lawbreakers, and thefyrd,[17] a military body intended to preserve internal order or defend the locality against an invader. The latter developed into the militia, and was usually embodied by aroyal warrant.[18] Service in each organisation involved different levels of preparedness.[19]
With the decay of the feudal system and the military revolution of the 16th century, the militia began to become an important institution in English life. It was organised on the basis of theshire county, and was one of the responsibilities of theLord Lieutenant, a royal official (usually a trusted nobleman). Each of thecounty hundreds was likewise the responsibility of aDeputy Lieutenant, who relayed orders to thejustices of the peace ormagistrates. Every parish furnished a quota of eligible men, whose names were recorded onmuster rolls. Likewise, each household was assessed for the purpose of finding weapons, armour, horses, or their financial equivalent, according to their status. The militia was supposed to bemustered for training purposes from time to time, but this was rarely done. The militia regiments were consequently ill-prepared for an emergency, and could not be relied upon to serve outside their own counties. This state of affairs concerned many people. Consequently, an elite force was created, composed of members of the militia who were prepared to meet regularly for military training and exercise. These were formed into trained band regiments, particularly in theCity of London, where theArtillery Ground was used for training. Thetrained bands performed an important role in theEnglish Civil War on the side of parliament, in marching to raise the siege ofGloucester (5 September 1643). Except for theLondon trained bands, both sides in the Civil War made little use of the militia, preferring to recruit their armies by other means.[citation needed]
As successful English settlement of North America began to take place in 1607 in the face of the hostile intentions of the powerful Spanish, and of the native populations, it became immediately necessary to raise militia amongst the settlers. The militia inJamestown saw constant action against thePowhatan Federation and other native polities. In theVirginia Company's other outpost,Bermuda, fortification began immediately in 1612. A Spanish attack in 1614 was repulsed by two shots fired from the incompleteCastle Islands Fortifications manned byBermudian Militiamen. In the Nineteenth century,Fortress Bermuda would become Britain'sGibraltar of the West, heavily fortified by a Regular Army garrison to protect theRoyal Navy's headquarters and dockyard in the Western Atlantic.
In the 17th Century, however, Bermuda's defence was left entirely in the hands of the Militia. In addition to requiring all male civilians to train and serve in the militia of their Parish, the Bermudian Militia included a standing body of trained artillerymen to garrison the numerous fortifications which ringedNew London (St. George's). This standing body was created by recruiting volunteers, and by sentencing criminals to serve as punishment. The Bermudian militiamen were called out on numerous occasions of war, and, on one notable occasion, to quell rioting privateers. The 1707Acts of Union made Bermudian and other English militiamenBritish. The Militia in Bermuda came to include a Troop of Horse (mounted infantry) and served alongside volunteers and (from 1701) a small body of regulars. The Militia faded away after the American War of 1812 when theParliament of Bermuda declined to renew the Militia Act. This resulted from the build-up of the regular armyBermuda Garrison along with Bermuda's development as the headquarters anddockyard of theNorth America and West Indies Station of theRoyal Navy, which made the militia seem excess to need. Vast sums of the Imperial defence expenditure were lavished on fortifying Bermuda during the Nineteenth Century and the British Government cajoled, implored, begged, and threatened the colonial legislature for 80 years before it raised a militia and volunteer units (in 1894 and 1894 respectively). Although the militia had historically been an infantry force, many units in Britain had been re-tasked as militia artillery from the 1850s onward due to the increased importance of the coastal artillery defences and the new militia unit in Bermuda followed suit. Titled theBermuda Militia Artillery, it was badged and uniformed as part of the Royal Artillery, and tasked with the garrison artillery role, manning coastal batteries. As in Britain, recruitment was of volunteers who engaged for terms of service, whereas the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps was organised on the same lines as volunteer rifle corps in Britain. Recruitment to the BVRC was restricted to whites, but the BMA recruited primarily coloured (those who were not entirely of European heritage) other ranks, though its officers were all white until 1953. Neither unit was reorganised in 1908 when the Militia, Volunteer Force and Yeomanry in Britain merged into the Territorial Force, but the BVRC was re-organised as a territorial in 1921 and the BMA in 1926. The BVRC name was not modified to Bermuda Rifles until 1951, however, and the Bermuda Militia Artillery (and from 1939 the Bermuda Militia Infantry) continued to be titled as militia until amalgamated with the Bermuda Rifles in 1965 to form theBermuda Regiment.
In British India, a special class of militia was established in 1907. This took the form of theFrontier Corps, which consisted of locally recruited full-time auxiliaries under British officers. Their role combined the functions of tribal police and border guards deployed along theNorth-West Frontier. Regional units included theZhob Militia, the Kurram Militia, and the Chagai Militia. After 1946 the Frontier Corps became part of the modern Pakistan Army.
Until theGlorious Revolution in 1688the Crown and Parliament were in strong disagreement. TheEnglish Civil War left a rather unusual military legacy. BothWhigs andTories distrusted the creation of a largestanding army not under civilian control. The former feared that it would be used as an instrument of royal tyranny. The latter had memories of theNew Model Army and the anti-monarchical social and political revolution that it brought about. Both preferred a small standing army under civilian control for defensive deterrence and to prosecute foreign wars, a large navy as the first line of national defence, and a militia composed of their neighbours as additional defence and to preserve domestic order.[citation needed]
Consequently, theEnglish Bill of Rights (1689) declared, amongst other things: "that the raising or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of Parliament, is against law..." and "that the subjects which areProtestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law." This implies that they are fitted to serve in the militia, which was intended to serve as a counterweight to the standing army and preserve civil liberties against the use of the army by a tyrannical monarch or government. TheStanding Army Controversy from 1697 to 1699 reflected the suspicion of both Tories andRadical Whigs of standing armies, a suspicion that would continue in opposition circles.
The Crown still (in the British constitution) controls the use of the army. This ensures that officers and enlisted men swear an oath to a politically neutral head of state, and not to a politician. While the funding of the standing army subsists on annual financial votes by parliament, theMutiny Act, superseded by the Army Act, and now theArmed Forces Act is also renewed on an annual basis by Parliament.[citation needed] If it lapses, the legal basis for enforcing discipline disappears, and soldiers lose their legal indemnity for acts committed under orders.[citation needed]
With the creation of theBritish Empire, militias were also raised in the colonies, where little support could be provided by regular forces. Overseas militias were first raised inJamestown,Virginia, and inBermuda, where theBermuda Militia followed over the next two centuries a similar trajectory to that in Britain.
In 1707 theActs of Union united theKingdom of England with theKingdom of Scotland. TheScottish navy was incorporated into the Royal Navy. The Scottish military (as opposed to naval) forces merged with the English, with pre-existing regular Scottish regiments maintaining their identities, though command of the new British Army was from England. How this affected militias either side of the border is unclear.
TheMilitia Act 1757 created a more professional force. Better records were kept, and the men were selected by ballot to serve for longer periods; specific provision was made for members of theReligious Society of Friends,Quakers, to be exempted, asconscientious objectors, from compulsory enlistment in the militia. Proper uniforms and better weapons were provided, and the force was 'embodied' from time to time for training sessions.
The militia was widely embodied at various times during the French andNapoleonic Wars. It served at several vulnerable locations, and was particularly stationed on the South Coast and inIreland. A number of camps were held atBrighton, where the militia regiments were reviewed bythe Prince Regent. (This is the origin of the song "Brighton Camp".) The militia could not be compelled to serve overseas, but it was seen as a training reserve for the army, asbounties were offered to men who opted to 'exchange' from the militia to theregular army.[citation needed]
TheParliament of Ireland passed anact in 1715 raising regiments of militia in each county andcounty corporate. Membership was restricted toProtestants between the ages of 16 and 60. In 1793, during theNapoleonic Wars, the Irish militia were reorganised to form thirty-seven county and city regiments. While officers of the reorganised force were Protestant, membership of the other ranks was now made available to members of all denominations.[citation needed]
In the late 17th century, numerous individuals in theKingdom of Scotland (then in a personal union with theKingdom of England) called for the resurrection of a Scottish militia, with the understated aim of protecting the rights of Scots in Great Britain.[20] After Scotland became part of theKingdom of Great Britain, theMilitia Act 1757 did not apply there. The traditional Scottish militia system continued, with only certain settlements in Scotland playing host to a militia regiment. This was viewed with resentment among some in Scotland, and theMilitia Club was formed to promote the raising of a Scottish militia. The Militia Club, along with several other Scottishgentlemen's clubs became the crucible of theScottish Enlightenment. The Militia Act 1797 empowered Scottish Lord Lieutenants to raise and command militia regiments in each of the "Counties, Stewartries, Cities, and Places" under their jurisdiction.[citation needed]
Although muster rolls were prepared as late as 1820, the element of compulsion was abandoned, and the militia transformed into a volunteer force, revived by theMilitia Act 1852. It was intended to be seen as an alternative to the regular army. Men would volunteer and undertake basic training for several months at an army depot. Thereafter, they would return to civilian life, but report for regular periods of military training (usually on the weapons ranges) and an annual two-week training camp. In return, they would receive military pay and a financial retainer, a useful addition to their civilian wage. Of course, many saw the annual camp as the equivalent of a paid holiday. The militia thus appealed to agricultural labourers, colliers and the like, men incasual occupations, who could leave their civilian job and pick it up again. Until 1852 the militia were an entirelyinfantry force, but from that year a number of county infantry regiments were converted toartillery and new ones raised. In 1877 the militia ofAnglesey andMonmouthshire were converted to engineers. Under thereforms, introduced bySecretary of State for WarHugh Childers in 1881, the remaining militia infantry regiments were re-designated as numbered battalions of regiments of the line, ranking after the two regular battalions. Typically, an English, Welsh or Scottish regiment would have two militia battalions (the 3rd and 4th) and Irish regiments three (numbered 3rd–5th).
The militia must not be confused with the volunteer units created in a wave of enthusiasm in the second half of the nineteenth century. In contrast with theVolunteer Force, and the similarYeomanry Cavalry, they were considered rather plebeian.
The militia was transformed into the Special Reserve by themilitary reforms ofHaldane in the reforming post 1906 Liberal government. In 1908 the militia infantry battalions were redesignated as "reserve" and a number were amalgamated or disbanded. NumberedTerritorial Force battalions, ranking after the Special Reserve, were formed from the volunteer units at the same time. Altogether, 101 infantry battalions, 33 artillery regiments and two engineer regiments of special reservists were formed.[21] Upon mobilisation, the special reserve units would be formed at the depot and continue training while guarding vulnerable points in Britain. The special reserve units remained in Britain throughout theFirst World War, but their rank and file did not, since the object of the special reserve was to supply drafts of replacements for the overseas units of the regiment. The original militiamen soon disappeared, and the battalions simply became training units. The Special Reserve reverted to its militia designation in 1921, then to Supplementary Reserve in 1924, though the units were effectively placed in "suspended animation" until disbanded in 1953.
The name was briefly revived in theMilitary Training Act 1939, in the aftermath of theMunich Crisis.Leslie Hore-Belisha, Secretary of State for War, wished to introduce a limited form ofconscription, not known in peacetime Britain since the militia of the early 19th century and previously. It was thought that calling the conscripts 'militiamen' would make this more acceptable, as it would render them distinct from the rest of the army. Only single men aged 20 up to the day before their 22nd birthday were to be conscripted, for six months full-time training before discharge into the reserve (with a free suit of civilian clothing). Although the first intake was called up in late July 1939, the declaration of war on 3 September entailed implementation of full-time conscription for all men aged 18–41, superseding the militia, never to be revived.
Three units still maintain their militia designation in theBritish Army. These are theRoyal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (formed in 1539), theJersey Field Squadron (The Royal Militia Island of Jersey) (formed in 1337), and theRoyal Alderney Militia (created in the 13th century and reformed in 1984). Additionally, theAtholl Highlanders are a ceremonial infantry militia maintained by theDuke of Atholl—they are the only legalprivate army in Europe.
Various other part-time, home defence organisations have been raised during times of crisis or perceived threat, although without the word "militia" in their title. These have included:
The various non-state paramilitary groups involved in the 20th-century conflicts inNorthern Ireland and the island ofIreland, such as the variousIrish Republican Army groups andloyalist paramilitaries, could also be described as militias and are occasionally referred to as such.
TheUlster Defence Regiment (UDR) was a locally raised professional militia instituted by anAct of Parliament in December 1969, becoming operational on 1 April 1970. Created as anon-partisan force to defend Northern Ireland "against armed attack or sabotage", it eventually peaked at 11 battalions with 7,559 men and women. 197 soldiers of the UDR were killed as active servicemen, with a further 61 killed after leaving the regiment, mostly by theProvisional Irish Republican Army. As a result of defence cuts it was eventually reduced to 7 battalions before being amalgamated with theRoyal Irish Rangers in 1992 to form the "Home Service Battalions" of theRoyal Irish Regiment.
The history of militia in theUnited States dates from the colonial era, such as in the American Revolutionary War.[22] Based on the English system, colonial militias were drawn from the body of adult male citizens of a community, town, or local region. Because there was no standing English Army before theEnglish Civil War, and subsequently the English Army and later the British Army had few regulars garrisoning North America, colonial militia served a vital role in local conflicts, particularly in theFrench and Indian Wars. Before shooting began in theAmerican War of Independence, American revolutionaries took control of the militia system, reinvigorating training and excluding men withLoyalist inclinations.[23] Regulation of the militia was codified by theSecond Continental Congress with theArticles of Confederation. The revolutionaries also created a full-time regular army—theContinental Army—but, because of manpower shortages, the militia provided short-term support to the regulars in the field throughout the war.
In colonial era Anglo-American usage, militia service was distinguished from military service in that the latter was normally a commitment for a fixed period of time of at least a year, for asalary, whereas militia was only to meet a threat, or prepare to meet a threat, for periods of time expected to be short. Militia persons were normally expected to provide their own weapons, equipment, or supplies, although they may later be compensated for losses or expenditures.[24] A related concept is thejury, which can be regarded as a specialized form of militia convened to render a verdict in a court proceeding (known as a petit jury ortrial jury) or to investigate a public matter and render a presentment or indictment (grand jury).[25]
With theConstitutional Convention of 1787 and Article 1 Section 8 of theUnited States Constitution, control of the army and the power to direct the militia of the states was concurrently delegated to the federalCongress.[26] TheMilitia Clauses gave Congress authority for "organizing, arming, and disciplining" the militia, and "governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States", and the States retained authority to appoint officers and to impose the training specified by Congress. Proponents describe a key element in the concept of "militia" was that to be "genuine" it not be a "select militia", composed of an unrepresentative subset of the population. This was an argument presented in theratification debates.[27]
The first legislation on the subject was theMilitia Act of 1792 which provided, in part:
That each and every free able-bodied white male citizen of the respective States, resident therein, who is or shall be of age of eighteen years, and under the age of forty-five years (except as is herein after excepted) shall severally and respectively be enrolled in the militia,... every citizen, so enrolled and notified, shall, within six months thereafter, provide himself with a good musket or firelock.
Prior to the War of Independence, the officers of militia units were commissioned by the royal governors. During the war, they were commissioned either by the legislature or the chief executive of the state. After the war, commissions were typically granted by the state's chief executive. Militias did not operate independently of the state governments but were under the command of the civil government just like the regular military forces.[28] Twenty-four of the current US states maintain state defense forces in the form of a constitutional militia in addition to the National Guard which is shared with the US government. These states include Alabama, Alaska, California, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, Vermont, and Virginia. In addition, the Territory of Puerto Rico has a defense force.
During the nineteenth century, each of the states maintained its militia differently, some more than others. American militia saw action in the variousIndian Wars, theWar of 1812, theAmerican Civil War, and theSpanish–American War. Sometimes militia units were found to be unprepared, ill-supplied, and unwilling.[26][29][30] Prior to the Civil War, militia units were sometimes used by southern states for slave control. Formed in 1860, Republican Party-affiliatedWide Awakes clubs were quick to take action to defend persons against southern slave-hunters.[31] InCalifornia, the militia carried out campaigns against bandits and against the Indians at the direction of its Governor between 1850 and 1866. DuringReconstruction after the Civil War, Republican state governments had militias composed almost entirely of freed slaves and populist whites. Their deployment to maintain order in the former Confederate states caused increased resentment among many Southern whites.[32]
After theAmerican Civil War, secret groups like theKu Klux Klan andKnights of the White Camellia arose quickly across theSouth, reaching a peak in the late 1860s. Even more significant in terms of effect were private militias:paramilitary organizations that formed starting in 1874, including theWhite League inLouisiana, which quickly formed chapters in other states; theRed Shirts inMississippi in 1875, and withforce in[clarification needed]South Carolina andNorth Carolina; and other "white line" militias and rifle clubs.
In contrast to the KKK, these paramilitary organizations were open; members were often well known in their communities. Nevertheless, they used force, intimidation, and violence, including murder, to push out Republican officeholders, break uporganizing, and suppressfreedmen's voting and civil rights.[33] The paramilitary groups were described as "the military arm of theDemocratic Party" and were instrumental in helping secure Democratic victories in the South in the elections of 1876.[34]
TheMilitia Act of 1903 divided what had been the militia into what it termed the "organized" militia, created from portions of the former state guards to become stateNational Guard units, and the "unorganized" militia consisting of all males from ages 17 to 45, with the exception of certain officials and others, which is codified in10 U.S.C. § 311. Some states, such as Texas, California, and Ohio, created separatestate defense forces for assistance in local emergencies. Congress later established[35] a system of "dual enlistment" for the National Guard, so that anyone who enlisted in the National Guard also enlisted in theU.S. Army.[36] When theU.S. Air Force was established as an independent service in 1947, the National Guard was further divided into theArmy National Guard and theAir National Guard. Under this construct, the 1933 defense act's "dual enlistment" facet was further amended so that enlisted soldiers and commissioned officers in the Army National Guard were also enlisted or commissioned in the Reserve Component of theU.S. Army. Enlisted airmen and commissioned officers in the Air National Guard were also enlisted or commissioned in the Air Reserve Component (ARC) of the U.S. Air Force.[citation needed]
The 20th century saw the rise ofmilitia organizations in the United States, these private militias often have ananti-government outlook and are not under the civil authority of the states. Privately organized citizen militia-related groups blossomed in the mid-1990s. Many militia groups are based on religious or political extremism and some are regarded ashate groups.[37]
In the 2008 decision of theSupreme Court, inDistrict of Columbia v. Heller, thede jure definition of "militia" as used inUnited Statesjurisprudence was discussed. The Court's opinion made explicit, in itsobiter dicta, that the term "militia", as used in colonial times in thisoriginalist decision, included both the federally organized militia and the citizen-organized militias of the severalStates: "... the 'militia' in colonial America consisted of a subset of 'the people'—those who were male, able-bodied, and within a certain age range" (7)... Although the militia consists of all able-bodied men, the federally-organized militia may consist of a subset of them"(23).[38]
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The most important previous activity of the Texas Militia was theTexas Revolution in 1836. Texans declared independence fromMexico while they were defeated during theBattle of the Alamo, in March 1836. On April 21, 1836, led bySam Houston, the Militia attacked theMexican Army at their camp, in theBattle of San Jacinto near the present city ofHouston. Following the war, some militia units reorganized into what was later to be known as theTexas Rangers, which was a private, volunteer effort for several years before becoming an official organization. After Texas joined the Union of the United States in 1845, Texas militia units participated in theMexican–American War.
In 1861 Texas joined the otherConfederate States in seceding from theUnion, and Texas militias played a role in theAmerican Civil War until it ended in 1865. Texas militiamen joinedTheodore Roosevelt'sRough Riders, a volunteer militia, and fought with him during theSpanish–American War in 1898. Some of the training of the Rough Riders took place in San Pedro Park, in the north-central part of San Antonio near the present site ofSan Antonio College. When a muster of the Militia proposed to train there on April 19, 1994, they were threatened with arrest, even though the charter of San Pedro Park forbids exclusion of activities of that kind. This threat led to a change in the meeting site. Like many other American states, Texas maintains a recognized State Militia, theTexas State Guard.
InBahrain, emergence of a small militia group Katibat al Haydariyah was first seen in 2015. During the year, total four attacks were claimed by the group, including on August 22 and 24, 2015, inMuharraq, on September 10, 2015, inAl Khamis, and on October 9, 2015, onBahraini forces in theAl Juffair region. Katibat al Haydariyah is its own distinct organization that decries the Bahraini government, butCanada and theUnited Kingdom listed it as an alias for the largerAl-Ashtar Brigades (or the Saraya al Ashtar). After four years, the militia group reemerged on social media in October 2019, to threaten new attacks on the island. It stated that they "will not retreat from our goals of the downfall of theAl Khalifa entity," and that "soon, guns will open their mouths and they will hear the whiz of bullets".[39]
In Brazil, the wordmilícia is heavily associated with paramilitary and drug-related criminal groups.
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Mexico has a history of various activities andinsurrection by militia andparamilitary groups dating back several hundred years that include the exploits of historical figures such as CaptainManuel Pineda Munoz andFrancisco "Pancho" Villa. This also includes groups such as the Free-Colored Militia (the interracial militias ofNew Spain, Colonial Mexico),[40] theCamisas Doradas, and the contemporarySelf Defense Council of Michoacan.[41]
Free-colored militias were an important and at times critical organization in Colonial Mexico. Prior to the eighteenth century, Spain's territories in the Americas were mainly defended through a series of Spanish military units being based in strategic coastal port cities and important economic centers.[40]: 8–10 But as European rivals began to challenge the Spanish crown and their dominance in the new world, the Bourbon dynasty initiated a series of reforms, allowing people from their colonies to serve in the regular armies, as well as permitting local militias in their territories.[40]: 14–16
While these groups began to integrate themselves into the official Spanish colonial militaries, free-colored militias have been reluctantly used since the-mid sixteenth century.Palenques, or run away slave communities, would often initiate slavery uprising in various cities and towns in New Spain, which made the colonial Spanish authorities uneasy about arming any free colored individuals.[40]: 14–16 Free colored rebellions and violence in Mexico City impacted regional policy of New Spain towards blacks. Given this social context, the racial climate in which these free-colored militias first appeared was a hostile one, and the first militias often had conflicts within them between their free-colored and white commanders.[40]: 20–23 The first large scale recruitment of fee-colored militias was in response to the attack on Veracruz port in 1683 by Dutch pirateer Lorenzo de Graff, with free-colored soldiers being called in from Mexico City, Puebla, Orizaba and other large colonial cities.[40]: 30–32 Militias increasingly began to take shape and develop over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries, but it's critical to understand that their development was not a linear progressive one. The experiences of militias in urban areas was vastly different from those in rural communities, and the role, influence, and duties of militias in the early 17th century were not the same as those of a century later. The critical stage for militia growth was during 1670–1762, where there was an increase of the militias responsibilities and they gained a considerable amount of autonomy over their own affairs.[40]: 30–32 The social impact of these free-colored militias added complexity to the race-based caste system that dominated the social landscape.
Free-colored militias were structured to follow thetercio organizational model that was used by Spanish Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties.[40]: 47–50 Tercios compromised 2,500 soldiers distributed among ten companies, each under the leadership of a captain. Free-colored militias under the tercio system were headed by asargento mayor (major) who became the senior operating officer in militias. Under thesargento mayor were the junior officers, which included one captain and alferez (lieutenant) per company, who were also aided by anayudante (adjutant) andsubteniente (second lieutenant) after they were incorporated into the system after 1767. The captain had supreme authority within their company, only reporting to thesargento mayor when he could not control matters of the company. Thealferez coordinated affairs with his captain and was next in line in command in his absence. Below the junior officers were ranking NCO's and up to four sergeants served per company. Acabo (corporal) was assigned to lead each squad of 25 soldiers. These NCO's were responsible for discipline of the soldiers and maintaining a limited record of individuals.[40]: 47–50 Officers and first sergeants were the only soldiers in the free-colored militias to receive a monthly salary with lower ranked soldiers only receiving pay when on campaigns. Their salaries came from the royal treasuries, alongside occasional supplementation by private contributions of prominent individuals.[40]: 83–84
Who exactly constitutes as a "free-colored person" is subject to much debate and discussion. While the termspardos, mulatos, negros andmorenos were commonly used under the caste system that was in place during this era, their use in this context is much more complex and who exactly qualified as who was a very fluid process, dependent on the social context of the time and place.[40]: 200–201 Despite the lack of universal understanding of racial identification across New Spain, when they were faced with external threats to their organizations, free-colored militias showed great racial unity in these times, such as in the case of Huajolotitlan, a small town of Oaxaca in southern Mexico.[40]: 207–211 After a decree was passed in 1784 calling for the retirement of every free-colored officer and the disbandment of their militia, the tows free-coloreds fiercely resisted. Free-colored soldiers refused to leave their posts and they dispatched to the capital in protests to defend their racially integrated organizations. This later inspired the communities other free-colored people to protests what they saw as other aggressions by the government, such as increasing tribute burdens.[40]: 207–211
While some of the previous examples are historical, the current official view on the existence of such militias in Mexico, when they are not backed by the government,[42] has been to always label them as illegal and to combat them in a military and a political way.[43]
Modern examples on the Mexican view on militias are the Chiapas conflict against the EZLN[44] and against theEPR in Guerrero,[45] where the government forces combated the upraised militias. And in a more recent case when civilianself-defence militias appeared during the Mexican war on drugs,[46] the government regulated them and transformed the militias in toRural federal forces,[47] and those who resisted were combated and imprisoned.[48]
Militias have been used throughout the history of Afghanistan.Afghan Militias and irregular forces have contributed significantly to the military history of the country and affected the process of state formation.[49]
Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the Sometent. Being alandlocked country, Andorra has no navy.
Before World War I, Andorra maintained an armed militia force of about 600 part-time militiamen under the supervision of a Captain (Capità or Cap de Sometent) and a Lieutenant (Desener or Lloctinent del Capità). This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (veguers) appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell.[50]
In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertakeceremonial duties. Uniforms and weaponry were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities.[51]
The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of thePolice Corps of Andorra in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the FrenchNational Gendarmerie,[52] with a detachment resident inAndorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard.[citation needed] The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles.[53] The force consisted of sixCorporals, one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish.
Today a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Sometent, but all able-bodied men remain technicallyavailable for military service,[54] with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. Anarea weapon such as a Shotgun per household is unregulated, howeverranged weapons such as Pistols and Rifles require a license.[51] The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is topresent theflag of Andorra at official ceremonial functions.[55][56] According toMarc Forné Molné, Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time volunteers.[57]
In more recent times there has only been a general emergency call to the popular army of Sometent during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees,[58] where 12 citizens perished in Andorra, to help the population and establish a public order along with the Local Police units.[59]
In the early 1800sBuenos Aires, which was by then the capital of theViceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, was attacked during theBritish invasions of the Río de la Plata. As regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers,Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included thecriollo peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy, as well as some slaves. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated.[60] The militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which thecriollos could manifest their political ambitions.[61] They were a key element in the success of theMay Revolution, which deposed the Spanish viceroy and began theArgentine War of Independence. A decree byMariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involvingcriollos,[clarification needed meaning unclear] allowing instead their promotion on military merit.
TheArgentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts. These irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts.[62] This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modernArgentine Army, drafted for theParaguayan War by PresidentBartolomé Mitre.[63] Provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre,Sarmiento,Avellaneda andRoca.[64]
Armenian militia, orfedayi played a major role in the independence of various Armenian states, includingWestern Armenia, theFirst Republic of Armenia, and theRepublic of Artsakh. Armenian militia also played a role in theGeorgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993.
In theColony of New South Wales, GovernorLachlan Macquarie proposed acolonial militia but the idea was rejected. GovernorRalph Darling felt amounted police force was more efficient than a militia. Amilitary volunteer movement attracted wide interest during theCrimean War.[65] Following Federation, the various military reserve forces of theCommonwealth of Australia became theCitizen Military Force (CMF).
A citizens' militia modeled on theBritish Home Guard called theVolunteer Defence Corps (VDC) was founded by theReturned and Services League of Australia (RSL) in 1940 in response to the possibility of a Japanese invasion of Australia. In the beginning, members didn't have uniforms and often paraded in business attire. They were given instruction onguerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of theAustralian Military Forces (AMF). The government supported the organization and equipped them withanti-aircraft artillery; however, they were disbanded by the end of World War II due to the fact that there was no longer a significant threat to national security.
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During theRevolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, a National Guard was established in Vienna. A separate but relatedAcademic Legion was composed mainly of students in the capital city.
AfterWorld War I, multiple militias formed assoldiers returned home to theirvillages, only to find many of them occupied bySlovene andYugoslav forces. Especially in the southern province ofCarinthia the Volkswehr (Peoples Defense Force) was formed, to fight the occupant forces.
During theFirst Republic, similar to the development inGermany, increasingradicalization of politics led to certainparamilitary militias associating with certainpolitical parties. TheHeimwehr (German:Home Defense) became affiliated with theChristian Social Party and theRepublikanischer Schutzbund (German:Republican Defense League) became affiliated with theSocial Democratic Workers' Party of Austria. Violence increasingly escalated, breaking out during theJuly Revolt of 1927 and finally theAustrian Civil War, when the Schutzbund was defeated by the Heimwehr,police,Gendarmerie andAustrian Armed Forces.
AfterWorld War II theAustrian Armed Forces (Bundesheer) were reestablished as aconscript military force. A basic part of it is the militia, which is a regular reservists force of the Bundesheer, comparable to thenational guard units of the United States. The conscript soldiers of the militia have to store their military equipment at home, to be mobilized quite fast within a few days in case of emergency. The system was established during theCold War and still exists, but the members of the militia now are volunteers only.
The Garde Civique or Burgerwacht (French and Dutch; "Civic Guard") was a Belgian paramilitary militia which existed between 1830 and 1920. Created in October 1830 shortly after the Belgian Revolution, the Guard amalgamated the various militia groups which had been created by the middle classes to protect property during the political uncertainty. Its role was as a quasi-military "gendarmerie", with the primary role of maintaining social order within Belgium. Increasingly anachronistic, it was demobilised in 1914 and officially disbanded in 1920, following a disappointing performance during the German invasion of Belgium in World War I.
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In Canada the title "Militia" historically referred to the land component of the armed forces, both regular (full-time) and reserve. The earliestCanadian militias date from the beginning of theFrenchcolonial period. InNew France,King Louis XIV created a compulsory militia of settlers in every parish that supported French authorities in the defence and expansion of the colony.
Following the Britishconquest of New France in 1760, local militia units supportedBritish Army regiments stationed inBritish America, and, after the secession of thirteen continental colonies in theAmerican War of Independence,British North America. In addition to the Canadian militia, British regiments were also supported by locally raised regulars (including the40th Regiment of Foot, and the100th (Prince of Wales's Royal Canadian) Regiment of Foot) andFencibles regiments. These regiments were raised through ordinary modes of recruiting, as opposed to being raised by ballot like the militia. Most militia units were only activated in time of war, but remained inactive in between. The battle honours awarded to these colonial militia regiments are perpetuated by modern regiments within theCanadian Army.
Defence ofthe Canadas long relied on a contingent ofBritish soldiers, as well as support from theRoyal Navy. However, the Crimean War saw the diversion of a significant number of British soldiers fromBritish North America. Fearing possible incursions from the United States, theParliament of the Province of Canada passed theMilitia Act of 1855, creating the Active Militia.[66] The Active Militia, later splitting into thePermanent Active Militia (PAM), a full-time professional army component (although it continued to use the label militia), andNon-Permanent Active Militia (NPAM), amilitary reserve force for the Canadian militia.[67] Following 1855, the traditional sedentary militia was reorganized into the Reserve Militia, with its last enrolment taking place in 1873, and was formally abolished in 1950.
Prior toCanadian Confederation, the colonies that made up theMaritimes, andNewfoundland maintained their own militias independent of the Canadian Militia.Bermuda, part of British North America and militarily subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief of the Maritimes,[68] allowed its militia to lapse following theAmerican War of 1812.[69] United States Independence, however, elevated Bermuda to the status of anImperial fortress and it would be strongly defended by the regular army,[70][71][72][73] and left out of the confederation of Canada.[74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81] From 1853 to 1871, theColony of Vancouver Island (and the succeedingColony of British Columbia) periodically raised and disbanded militia units. These units were raised for specific purposes, or in response to a specific threat, real or perceived.[82]
After theTreaty of Washington was signed between the Americans and British, nearly all remaining British soldiers were withdrawn from Canada in November 1871.[83] The departure of the majority of British forces in Canada made the Canadian militia the only major land forces available in Canada. In 1940, both components of the militia, PAM and NPAM were reorganized, the former intoCanadian Army (Active), the latter into theCanadian Army (Reserve)
In addition to the various colonial militia units, and the regiments of the Canadian militia, in 1942, the Army'sPacific Command created the Pacific Coast Militia Rangers. Intended to function similarly to theUnited Kingdom'sHome Guard, the Rangers were a secondary defence force, defending the coast ofBritish Columbia andYukon from potential Japanese attack.[84] The Rangers were disbanded in September 1945, shortly after the conclusion of World War II. The legacy of the Pacific Coast Militia Rangers is perpetuated by theCanadian Rangers, a component of the Primary Reserve that provides a military presence in areas where it would not be economically or practically viable to have conventional Army units – most notablynorthern Canada.
The Canadian Army Reserve continued to use the termmilitia in reference to itself until theunification of the Canadian Armed Forces in 1968. Since unification, no Canadian military force has formally usedmilitia in its name. However, the Canadian Army Reserve is still colloquially referred to as themilitia.[85][86] Members of the Canadian Army Reserve troops typically train one night a week and every other weekend of the month, except in the summer. Summertime training may consist of courses, individual call-outs, or concentrations (unit and formation training of one to two weeks' duration). Most Canadian cities and counties have one or more militia units. Primary Reserve members may volunteer for overseas service, to augment their regular force counterparts—usually duringNATO orUnited Nations missions.
China's currentmilitia falls under the leadership of theChinese Communist Party (CCP), and forms part of the Chinese armed forces. Under the command of the military organs, it undertakes such jobs as war preparation services, security and defense operational tasks and assistance in maintainingsocial order and public security.[87]
Historically, militias of varying levels of ability have existed in China, organized on a village andclan level, especially during periods of instability and in areas subject to pirate and bandit attack. When the British attempted to take control of theNew Territories in 1898, they were resisted by the local militias which had been formed for mutual defence againstpirate raids. Although ultimately defeated, the militias' dogged resistance convinced the British to make concessions to theindigenous inhabitants allowing them to preserve inheritance, property and marriage rights and customs throughout most of the period of the British rule.[88][89]
Cuba has three militia organizations: TheTerritorial Troops Militia (Milicias de Tropas Territoriales) of about one million people (half women),[90] the Youth Labor Army (Ejército Juvenil del Trabajo) devoted to agricultural production, and a naval militia.[91][92] Formerly, there existed theNational Revolutionary Militias (Milicias Nacionales Revolucionarias), which was formed after theCuban Revolution and initially consisted of 200,000 men who helped the 25,000 strong standing army defeat counter-revolutionary guerillas.[93]
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In 2021, the Czech Parliament passed an Act No. 14/2021 Coll., on the handling of weapons in certain cases affecting the internal order or security of the Czech Republic. The Act's number 14/21 symbolically refers to the600th anniversary of civilian firearms possession in the country.[94] The legislation establishes "a system of firearms training, the purpose of which is to improve the knowledge, abilities and skills of persons authorised to handle firearms for the purpose of ensuring internal order or the security of the Czech Republic".[95] Gun owners can join government endorsed advanced shooting training courses with their privately owned firearms and become members of the militia-style Designated Reserves.[96]
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TheDanish Home Guard (Danish:Hjemmeværnet) (HJV) is the fourth service of theDanish military. It was formerly concerned only with the defence of Danish territory but, since 2008, it has also supported Danish international military efforts in Afghanistan, Iraq and Kosovo. There are five branches: Army Home Guard, Naval Home Guard, Air Force Home Guard, Police Home Guard, and Infrastructure Home Guard.
TheOmakaitse (Home Guard) was an organisation formed by the local population ofEstonia on the basis of theEstonian Defence League and theforest brothers resistance movement active on theEastern Front between 3 July 1941 and 17 September 1944.[97] This arrangement was unique in the context of the war as inLatvia, which otherwise shared a common fate with Estonia, there was no organisation of this kind.[98]
ThePeople's Militia was established in 1975 under theDerg regime's Proclamation No 71, used to assist police forces and protect farms and property. The militia did operations in Eritrea during theOgaden War, whileMengistu Haile Mariam reconstituted as the "Red Army". The Derg government conscripted about 30,000 to 40,000 civilians into the militia fromShewa,Wollo, andGojam provinces in May 1976.[99][100]
TheFano militia is an ethno-nationalistAmhara militia and former protest movement that emerged during thepremiership of Abiy Ahmed. Fano intervened armed conflicts in thepost-2018 regime, includingBenishangul-Gumuz's Metekel conflict,Tigray War and recentlyWar in Amhara. They have been accused of ethnic massacres against other ethnic groups, such as theQemant and other minorities.[101]
WhileFinland employs conscription, they do not have separate militia units: all units are organized by and under the command of theFinnish Defence Forces. All men belong to the reserve until age 50 or 60 depending on rank, and may be called up in case of mobilization. Each reservist is assigned a position in a unit to be activated. However, since 2004, the FDF does haveterritorial forces, organized along the lines of regular infantry formations, which are composed of volunteers. Furthermore, long-range patrol units (sissi troops, a type ofspecial forces) are assigned to local troops.
In history, before Finland became independent, two types of local militias existed: the White Guards and Red Guards, which were non-socialists and socialists, respectively. In theFinnish Civil War (1918) the White Guards founded the White Army, which was victorious over the Red Guards. White Guards continued their existence as a volunteer militia until the Second World War. In some cases their activity found overt political expression as in theMäntsälä rebellion. However, in 1934 separate wartime White Guard units were dissolved and in the Second World War they served at the front, dispersed in regular units. They were dissolved as a condition of peace after the Continuation War.
Salwa Judum (meaning "Peace March"[102] or "Purification Hunt" inGondi language) was a militia active in theChhattisgarh state ofIndia.
Village Defence Guards, formerly known as Village Defence Committees, were first set up in 1995.[103] The idea of the VDCs was to arm ex-service personnel to check Pakistani infiltration and espionage. The VDCs were formed in Jammu region of J&K to offer self-defence capabilities to villagers in the face of looming terrorist threats. Under the scheme, each VDC used to have a Special Police Officer (SPO) as its in-charge and there were 10-15 other volunteer members, mostly ex-service personnel. They were given .303 rifles and ammunition. The SPO in charge of the VDC was paid whereas the rest were volunteers. In 2020, the policy of Village Defence Committees was revamped and Village Defence Groups were introduced, members of whom are called Village Defence Guards. It was not just a change of name as the very structure of committees was changed. Unlike VDCs where only SPOs were paid, all VDGs are paid.[103]
A total of 4,153 Village Defence Groups (VDG) and 32,355 Special Police Officers were engaged in Jammu and Kashmir in different responsibilities for the protection of civilians and anti-terrorists operations.[104][105]
TheBasij militia founded byAyatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in November 1979,[106] is composed of 90,000 men, with an active and reserve strength up to 300,000 men. It ultimately draws from about 1 million members, and is subordinate to theIslamic Revolutionary Guard Corps in Iran.[107]
Since the rise ofISIL in 2014 and their conquest of many predominantly-Sunni areas inIraq, theShiite militias became even more prominent in the country by joining theIraqi Army in many major battles against ISIL.[108]
In 1908 a Jewish underground organisation,Bar Giora, re-invented itself as an armed militia –Hashomer. It was established to provide Jewish guards for theZionist colonies being established inOttomanPalestine. The group existed for 10 years. At its height it had around 100 members, including 23 women.[109]
In modern times, theIsrael Defense Forces (IDF) is often described as a heavily armed militia, not a full-fledged army, since it is legally and publicly viewed as a defensive force only, and since it relies heavily on the reserve duty of Israeli citizens who are annually called to service for set periods of time, rather than on professional, full-time soldiers.[110]Israeli settlements in theIsraeli-occupied territories rely on armed militia teams for their security.[111] National service conscripts can also serve in theIsrael Border Police (commonly known by its Hebrew abbreviationMagav which meansborder guard inHebrew), which is aparamilitary branch of theIsrael Police rather than the IDF.
Since the fall ofGaddafi's rule of Libya in the aftermath of the Libyan Civil War, rebel groups that have contributed to the revolution splintered into self-organized militia movements and have been involved in a feud for control of each city.[112] Since the revolution, reports of clashes and violence by militia groups have been increasing.[113]
In 1910 KingNicholas I of Montenegro proclaimed that all male citizens were members of a national militia and had both a right and a duty to own at least one Gasser Pattern revolver under penalty of law.
The official reason for the King's decree was to create an armed populace that would deter neighbouring countries from attacking Montenegro, which was unable to field a large army. However, it was widely believed in Montenegro that this decision was actually taken because the King owned shares in Leopold Gasser Waffenfabrik inVienna - the patent holder and sole manufacturer of the pistol at that time.[114][115][116] Despite this, the decree actually obliged Montenegrin adult males to own a GasserPattern revolver, not necessarily one made by Gasser itself. In fact Leopold Gasser was faced with such heavy demand for the pistol internationally, that it could not fulfil all of the orders placed for it. This led the revolver's manufacturer to license out production to other companies and many Gasser Pattern pistols were then manufactured and sold by other European firms, most notably based out of Belgium and Spain. Even these licensed models did not satiate demand for the pistol and this, alongside a lax enforcement ofintellectual property rights in Montenegro, led to many unlicensed local models of the pistol also being produced, with quality ranging from very good to outright dangerous to its user.
Subsequently, the weapon quickly became a status symbol for Montenegrin men and was commonly worn alongside traditional attire. Many Montenegrin immigrants that travelled to North America brought their Gasser pattern revolvers with them and at least two batches of several thousand pistols were smuggled into Mexico during theMexican Revolution, leading to the Gasser revolver becoming widespread in the Americas. However, as the original reason for their mass production and the generation that grew around it faded, the pistol eventually lost its place as a status symbol and many were either given away or sold in the secondhand market.
Schutterij refers to a voluntarycity guard or citizen militia in the medieval andearly modernNetherlands, intended to protect the town or city from attack and act in case of revolt or fire. Their training grounds were often on open spaces within the city, near the city walls, but, when the weather did not allow, inside a church. They are mostly grouped according to their district and to the weapon that they used:bow,crossbow orgun. Together, its members are called aSchuttersgilde, which could be roughly translated as a "shooter'sguild". It is now a title applied to ceremonial shooting clubs and to the country's Olympic rifle team.
From theTreaty of Waitangi in 1840 until 1844 small detachments ofBritish Imperial troops based in New Zealand were the only military. This changed as a result of theFlagstaff War,[117] with the colonial government passing a Militia Act on 25 March 1845.[118] Militia units were formed inAuckland,Wellington,New Plymouth, andNelson. Service in the militia was compulsory.
Many localized militia saw service, together with British Imperial troops, during theNew Zealand Wars. In the late nineteenth century a system of local Volunteer militias evolved throughout the country. These were semi-trained but uniformed and administered by a small number of regular "Imperial" officers.[119]The militia units were disbanded and reformed as the Territorial Army in 1911.
TheWorker-Peasant Red Guards is a North Korean paramilitary organization organized on a provincial/town/city/village level.
Militias have played an important role supportingPakistan's Military since theIndo-Pakistani War of 1947 when Pakistan, with the support of militias, was able to gain control of parts of the region ofKashmir.[120] Pakistan found the militias volunteering to participate in theIndo-Pakistani war of 1965 and theIndo-Pakistani war of 1971 quite useful as well.
Currently Pakistani citizens forming militias from theKhyber Pakhtunkhwa province are participating in the'war on terror'.[121][122]
In the eighteenth century, the Philippines was a Spanish colony and the Spanish authorities sought to augment the strength of the regular military force of their colony by forming a number of militias. The most notable of these was theLuzon Grenadiers, which was of such exceptional quality that it was converted into a regular unit. Another noteworthy militia was theRoyal University Militias, which was the forerunner of theUniversity of Santo Tomas ROTC unit. TheUniversity of Santo Tomas along with theUniversity of the Philippines Diliman and theUniversity of the East have the bestReserve Officers' Training Corps programs in the country.
After the outbreak of theRevolution, Spain'sgovernor-general in the Philippines authorized the formation of the Manila Loyal Volunteers Battalion.
During thePhilippine-American War, theSandatahan was the militia of theFirst Philippine Republic, and it distinguished itself in theBattle of Manila and theSecond Battle of Caloocan.
When the Philippines Islands was an American colony, thePhilippine National Guard was formed to fight in France during World War I as a unit of the American Expeditionary Force, but it never served overseas. The most famous Philippine guardsman was the first Filipino military pilot Leoncio R. Malinao, a 1920U.P. graduate, who held the ranks of aviation cadet and lieutenant.
At the time when the Philippines was under Japanese military administration during the Pacific War, thePalaak was formed by the Japanese army. Also known as the Bamboo Army, because it was armed with bamboo spears, this militia existed even before the inauguration of theSecond Philippine Republic. It was composed of all able-bodied men ofDistrict and Neighborhood Associations (DANAS), from teenagers to sexagenarians. They were organized into platoons, companies, and battalions, and drilled along Japanese army lines. They served as spies and informers of the Japanese, they helped arrest guerrillas and performed guard duties. When the DANAS was fully established, the government claimed that there were 124,000 DANAS encompassing more than 1,500,000 Filipinos.
The Cold War caused the formation of various militias such as theIntegrated Civilian Home Defense Forces,Bantáy Bayan (Civilian Volunteer Organization), andCitizen Armed Force Geographical Unit. In Mindanao there were theAlsa Masa,Davao Death Squad, and theKuratong Baleleng.
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Portugal has a long tradition in the use of militias for national defense. Between the 12th and 16th centuries, the municipal militias – composed ofspearmen,pikemen, horsemen, slingers, javelineers, archers,crossbowmen and laterarquebusiers – constituted the main component of thePortuguese Royal Army, together with smaller military forces from theKing, themilitary orders and the feudal lords.
After some failed previous attempts, in 1570 KingSebastian of Portugal created theOrdenanças, a centrally managed military territorial organization that would replace the municipal militias and became the basis of a national army. After 60 years of foreign domination (1580–1640), theOrdenanças were reorganized for thePortuguese Restoration War. The Portuguese Army was then organized in three lines, with the 2nd and 3rd being militia forces. TheOrdenanças became the 3rd line and acted both as a territorial draft organization for the 1st and 2nd line troops and as a kind of home guard for local defense. The 2nd line was made of the auxiliary troops, also militia units with the role of regional defense. In the end of the 18th century, the auxiliary troops were renamed "Militias".
In thePeninsular War, the Militia regiments and the Ordenanças units had an important role in the defense of the country against the Napoleonic invader army. Still in the 19th century, the Militia units also had an important role in theLiberal Wars, with the majority of those troops fighting on the side of KingMiguel. Besides the regular militias, a number of volunteer militia units were formed to fight on both sides of the war.
With the establishment of the constitutional regime, the old Militias andOrdenanças were replaced by a single national militia force, the National Guard. However, the National Guard revealed itself an ineffective and undisciplined force. Their units became highly politicized, being involved in a number of conspiracies and coups. The National Guard having less and less confidence from the authorities, became extinct in 1847, terminating a long tradition of national militias in Portugal.
During the 20th century, some experiments with militia type forces were made. From 1911 to 1926, the Portuguese Army was organized as a militia army. Also, in 1936, theEstado Novo regime created thePortuguese Legion as a political volunteer militia, dedicated to the fight against the enemies of country and of the social order. From World War II, the Portuguese Legion assumed the responsibility forcivil defense, this becoming its main role during theCold War, until its extinction in 1974.
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Neither theRussian Empire, nor theSoviet Union ever had an organised force that could be equated to a militia. Instead a form of organisation that predated the Russian state was used during national emergencies calledNarodnoe Opolcheniye (People's Regimentation). More comparable to the EnglishFyrd, it was a popular voluntary joining of the local полкpolk, or a regiment, though it had no regular established strength or officers, these usually elected from prominent local citizens. The Tsarist regime was particularly reluctant to arm and organise militia forces because of concern over a repetition of thePugachev Serf Revolt of the late 18th century. Only in the face of the national emergency of1812 was the raising ofopolcheniye "cohorts" permitted. Numbering over 223,000, loosely trained and barely equipped, these enthusiastic volunteers nevertheless provided a useful reserve for the regular army.[123]
Although these spontaneously created popular forces had participated in several major wars of the Russian Empire, including in combat, they were not obligated to serve for more than one year, and notably departed for home during the1813 campaign in Germany. On only one occasion, during themilitary history of the Soviet Union, the Narodnoe Opolcheniye was incorporated into the regular forces of theRed Army, notably inLeningrad and Moscow.
The termMilitsiya in Russia and formerCommunist Bloc nations was specifically used to refer to the civilianpolice force, and should not be confused with the conventional western definition of militia. The term, as used in this context, dated from post-revolutionary Russia in late 1917 and was intended to draw a distinction between the new Soviet law enforcement agencies and the disbanded Tsarist police. In some of these states, such asUkraine, the "militia" were renamed as "police" while in other states (e.g.Belarus) the title remains unchanged. In Russia itself the "militia' became "police" (inRussian:Полиция,Politsiya) in March 2011.[124]
The first militias formed inSri Lanka were by Lankan Kings, who raised militia armies for their military campaigns both within and outside the island. This was due to the reason that the Kings never maintained a standing army instead had aRoyal Guard during peacetime and formed a militia in wartime.
When thePortuguese who were the first colonial power to dominate the island raised local militias under the command of local leaders known asMudaliyars. These militias took part in the manyPortuguese campaigns against the Lankan Kings. The Dutch continued to employ these militias but due to their unreliability tended to favor employingSwiss andMalaymercenaries in their campaigns in the island.
TheBritish Empire then ousted theDutch from the coastal areas of the country, and sought to conquer the independentKandyan Kingdom. In 1802, the British became the first foreign power to raise a regular unit ofSinhalese with British officers, which was named the 2nd Ceylon Regiment, also known as theSepoy Corps. It fought alongside British troops in theKandyan wars. After theMatale Rebellion led byPuran Appu in 1848, in which a number of Sinhalese recruits defected to the side of the rebels, the recruitment of Sinhalese to the British forces was temporarily halted and the Ceylon Regiments disbanded.
In 1861, theCeylon Light Infantry Volunteers were raised as a militia, but soon became amilitary reserve force. This became theCeylon Defence Force in 1910 and consisted of militia units. These were theColombo Town Guard and theTown Guard Artillery formed during the two world wars.
With the escalation of theSri Lankan Civil War, local villagers under threat of attack were formed into localized militia to protect their families and homes.[125] According to the Sri Lankan Military these militias were formed after "massacres done by theLTTE" and in the early 1990s they were reformed as theSri Lankan Home Guard. In 2007 the Home Guard became theSri Lanka Civil Security Force.[126] In 2008, the government called for the formation of nearly 15,000 civil defence committees at the village level for additional protection.[127]
In 2004, theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam claimed have establish a voluntary "Tamil Eelam auxiliary force". According to the LTTE's then head of police, the force was to be assigned to tasks such as rehabilitation, construction, forest conservation and agriculture, but would also be used to battle the Sri Lankan military if the need arose.[128][129][130] In early 2009 it ceased to exist with the military defeat of theLTTE at the hands of theSri Lanka Armed Forces.
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TheJanjaweed militia consists of armedArab Muslims fighting for the government inKhartoum against non-Arab Muslim "rebels". They are active in theDarfur region of western Sudan and also in easternChad. According toHuman Rights Watch these partisans are responsible for abuses including war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing.[131]
As of 2012, theSwedish Home Guard consists of 22,000 organized into 40light infantrybattalions of 300–700 Guardsmen. These battalions are then organised intocompanies, usually one for everymunicipality. The main task of the battalions is to guard vital military and civilian installations throughout the country.[citation needed]
In 2001, the Rapid Response units numbered around 5,000 soldiers of the total of 42,000. As of 2014, the majority of the force, 17,000 out of 22,000 soldiers will be in Rapid Response units. The decrease in number of troops comes with an equal increase in quality and modern equipment. These units are motorized and are ready to be mobilized more often, than other Home Guard units. Rapid response units have more combat tasks compared to the rest of the Home Guard, including escort duties. Some battalions located near the coast also have marine companies equipped withCombat Boat 90. A few battalions have recently set up 'specialized' companies to evaluate the possibility to add new abilities to the Home Guard. These are at the time of writing eight reconnaissance/intelligence companies, fourCBRN-platoons, a movcon platoon, an engineer platoon, and amilitary police unit.
One of the best known and ancient militias is theSwiss Armed Forces.Switzerland has long maintained, proportionally, the second largest military force in the world, with about half the proportional amount of reserve forces of theIsraeli Defense Forces, a militia of some 33% of the total population. The "militia principle" of public duties is central to Swiss political culture and not limited to military issues. For example, in most municipalities it is common to serve as a conscript fire fighter in theCompulsory Fire Department.
Article 58.1 of the April 18, 1999, Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation (official, French version) provides that "Switzerland has an army. It is primarily organised according to the principle of a militia." However, under the country's militia system, professional soldiers constitute about 5 percent of military personnel. In 1995, the number of soldiers was reduced to 400,000 (including reservists, amounting to some 5.6% of the population) in 2004, to 200,000 (including 80,000 reservists, or 2.5% of the population) and again in 2022, to 150,000 (including 50,000 reservists). However, the Swiss Militia continues to consist of most of the adult male population (with voluntary participation by women) who are usually issued an assault rifle which they can keep at home or store in a central arsenal and most of them have to periodically engage in combat and marksmanship training.[132] The militia clauses of the Swiss Federal Constitution are contained in Art. 59, where it is referred to as "military service" (German:Militärdienst;French:service militaire;Italian:servizio militare;Romansh:servetsch militar).
The Syrian National Defense Force was formed out of pro-government militias. They receive their salaries and their military equipment from the government[133][134] and as of 2013 numbers around 100,000.[135][136] The force acts in an infantry role, directly fighting against rebels on the ground and running counter-insurgency operations in coordination with the army which provides them with logistical and artillery support. Unlike theSyrian Army, NDF soldiers are allowed to takeloot from battlefields, which can then be sold on for extra money.[133]
The Militia and Self-Defence Force is a part ofVietnam People's Armed Forces. The militia organized in communes, wards and townships and is put under commune-level military commands.
The Self-Defence Militia has two branches:Dân quân tự vệ nòng cốt (Core Self-Defence Militia) andDân quân tự vệ rộng rãi (General Self-Defence Militia). The term of service in the Core Militia is 4 years.[137]
Beside the federalYugoslav People's Army, eachconstituent republic of the formerSFR Yugoslavia had its ownTerritorial Defense Forces. TheNon-Aligned Yugoslavia was concerned about eventual aggression from any of thesuperpowers, especially by theWarsaw Pact after thePrague Spring, so theTerritorial Defense Forces were formed as an integral part of thetotal warmilitary doctrine calledTotal National Defense. Those forces corresponded tomilitary reserve forces,paramilitary or militia, the latter, in the military meaning of the term (likemilitary formation). It should not be confused with the Yugoslav Militia-Milicija which was a term for apolice.
Charles II demobilized the army, keeping only troops that he felt would be loyal to the new regime...Charles's "select" militia was composed only of a small part of the population...
spanish american war militia.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)The Diocese of Hamilton in Bermuda was established in 12th June 1967. Bermuda was served by the Diocesan clergy of Halifax until 1953, after which pastoral responsibility transferred to the Congregation of the Resurrection.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[circular reference]| International | |
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