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Military order (religious society)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
One of a variety of Christian societies of knights
Military orders' presence in theCrusader states (inGerman). Column content: order - main seat - property (castle, commandery, hospital, etc.) - territory. Line by line:Hospitallers (white cross - red dot - salmon);Templars (red cross - green dot - green);German Order (black cross - blue dot)
Reconquista of the main towns in theIberian Peninsula (per year; inSpanish)
Extent of theTeutonic Order in 1410

Amilitary order (Latin:Ordo militaris) is aLatin Catholicreligious order ofknights. The original military orders were theKnights Templar, theKnights Hospitaller, theOrder of the Holy Sepulchre, theOrder of Saint James, theOrder of Calatrava, and theTeutonic Knights. They arose in theMiddle Ages in association with theCrusades - theCrusader states (mainly theKingdom of Jerusalem in theHoly Land), theBaltics, and theIberian peninsula; their members being initially dedicated to the protection ofChristianpilgrims, and eventually to the defence of the Crusader states and the conquest of non-Christian or even non-Catholic lands. They are the predecessors of chivalric orders.

Most members of military orders werelaymen who tookreligious vows, such as ofpoverty, chastity, and obedience, according tomonastic ideals. The orders owned houses called commanderies all across Europe and had a hierarchical structure of leadership with thegrand master at the top.

The Knights Templar, the largest and most influential of the military orders, was suppressed in the early fourteenth century; only a handful of orders were established and recognized afterwards. However, some persisted longer in their original functions, such as theSovereign Military Order of Malta and theOrder of Saint John, the respective Catholic and German Protestant successors of the Knights Hospitaller,[1] alongside theOrder of the Holy Sepulchre, which remains active under the Pope's sovereignty. Those military orders that survive today have evolved into purely honorific or ceremonial orders or else into charitable foundations.

History

[edit]
The Hospitallers in the 13th century

In 1053, for theBattle of Civitate, the Knights of Saint Peter (Milites Sancti Petri) was founded as amilitia byPope Leo IX to counter theNormans.[2]

In response to theIslamic conquests of the formerByzantine Empire, numerous Catholic military orders were set up following theFirst Crusade. The founding of such orders suited the Catholic church's plan of channeling the devotion of the Europeannobility toward achieving the Church's temporal goals, and it also complemented thePeace and Truce of God.[3] The foundation of theKnights Templar in 1118 provided the first in a series of tightly organized military forces for the purpose of opposingIslamic conquests in theHoly Land and in theIberian Peninsula — see theReconquista — as well as Islamic invaders andpagan tribes inEastern Europe which were perceived as threats to the Church's supremacy.

The first secularized military order was theOrder of Saint George, founded in 1326 by KingCharles I of Hungary, through which he made all theHungarian nobility swear loyalty to him. Shortly thereafter, the Order of the "Knights of the Band" was founded in 1332 by KingAlfonso XI of Castile. Both orders existed only for about a century.[4]

Purpose

[edit]

The original features of the military orders were the combination ofreligious and military ways of life. Some of them, like theKnights Hospitaller, theKnights of Saint Thomas, and theOrder of Saints Maurice and Lazarus also had charitable purposes and cared for the sick and poor. However, they were not purely male institutions, asnuns could attach themselves asconvents of the orders. One significant feature of the military orders was thatclerical brothers could be subordinate to non-ordained brethren.

In 1818, orientalistJoseph von Hammer compared the Catholic military orders, in particular theKnights Templar, to certain Islamic models such as theMuslim sect ofAssassins. In 1820,José Antonio Conde suggested they were modeled on theribat, a fortified religious institution which brought together a religious or hospital way of life with fighting the enemies of Islam. However popular such views may have become, others have criticized this view, suggesting there were no such ribats aroundOutremer until after the military orders had been founded.

The role and function of the military orders extended beyond their military exploits in theHoly Land,Prussia, and the Baltics. In fact, they had extensive holdings and staff throughout Western Europe. The majority were laymen. They provided a conduit for cultural and technical innovation, such as the introduction offulling into England by the Knights Hospitaller, and the banking facilities of the Knights Templar.

Northern crusades

[edit]
Main article:Northern crusades
Map of the branches of the Teutonic Order in Europe around 1300 showing sovereign territory in the Baltic and the Grand Master's HQ in Venice
Map of the branches of theTeutonic Order in Europe around 1300. Shaded area is sovereign territory, Grand Master HQ in Venice is highlighted

In 1147 Bernard of Clairvaux persuaded Pope Eugenius III that the Germans' and Danes' conflict with the paganWends was a holy war analogous to the Reconquista; he urged a crusade until all heathens were baptised or killed. The new crusaders' motivation was primarily economic: the acquisition of new arable lands and serfs; the control of Baltic trade routes; and the abolishment of theNovgorodian merchants' monopoly of the fur trade.[5] From the early 13th century the military orders provided garrisons inOld Livonia and defended the German commercial centre,Riga. TheLivonian Brothers of the Sword and theOrder of Dobrzyń were established by local bishops. The Sword Brothers were notorious for cruelty to "pagans" and converts alike. The Teutonic Knights were founded during the 1190s in Palestine, but their strong links to Germany diverted efforts from the Holy Land to the Baltic. Between 1229 and 1290, the Teutonic Knights absorbed both the Brothers of the Sword and the Order of Dobrzyń, subjugated most of the Baltic tribes and established a ruthless and exploitativemonastic state.[6][7] The Knights invited foreign nobility to join their regularReisen, or raids, against the last unconquered Baltic people, theLithuanians. These were fashionable events of chivalric entertainment among young aristocrats.Jogaila,Grand Duke of Lithuania, converted to Catholicism and married QueenJadwiga of Poland resulting in a united Polish–Lithuanian army routing the Knights atTannenberg in 1410. The Knights' state survived,from 1466 under Polish suzerainty. Prussia was transformed into asecular duchy in 1525, andLivonia in 1562.[8]

List of military orders

[edit]

These are military orders listed chronologically according to their dates of foundation and extinction, sometimes approximate due to scarce sources, and/or repeated suppressions by Papal or royal authorities.

They are divided into international and national according to their adherence, mission, and enrollment, disregarding the extent of eventual gradual geographical distribution outside of their region of concern.

International

[edit]
SymbolNameFoundedFounderOriginRecognitionProtectionExtinctionNotes
Knights Hospitaller
(Sovereign Military Order of Malta and theOrder of Saint John)		c. 1099Gerard ThomJerusalem,Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem1113 byPope Paschal IIGrand Master (1113-),
Prince (1607-),
Cardinal (1630-)		One of the oldest institutions of Western and Christian civilisation, founded in Jerusalem in the 11th century, with a long history of service to the vulnerable and the sick. Since 1834 the Order of Malta's government seat has been in Rome, where it is guaranteed extraterritorial rights. A lay religious order of the Catholic Church since 1113 and a subject of international law, the Sovereign Order of Malta has diplomatic relations with over 100 states and the European Union, and permanent observer status at the United Nations. Recognizes a Protestant successor, theOrder of Saint John. There are only five legitimate and mutually recognized Orders of St. John that continue to carry on the historic work of the Knights Hospitaller. These are the Sovereign Military and Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta (The Order of Malta), Die Balley Brandenburg des Ritterlichen Ordens Sankt Johannis vom Spital zu Jerusalem, commonly known as the Johanniter Orden (Germany), Johanniter Orde in Nederland (Netherland), Johanniterorden I Sverige (Sweden), and the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem (Order of St. John, sometimes referred to as the Most Venerable Order). In 1961, an alliance was formed between the Most Venerable Order, the Johanniter ORden, Johanniter Orde in Nederland, and Johanniterorden I Sverige; these four orders compromise the Alliance of the Orders of St. John.
Order of the Holy Sepulchre
(Militi Sancti Sepulcri)		c. 1099Godfrey of BouillonJerusalem,Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem1103 byBaldwin I of Jerusalem
1113 byPope Paschal II		Kingdom of Jerusalem to 1291,
Custos of the Holy Land: 1230–1489,
Pope: 1489-		Originally an "association" of knights who guarded theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre under the jurisdiction of thekings of Jerusalem. In 1113, they became consubstantial with theCanons of the Holy Sepulchre after their recognition byPope Paschal II, as a military branch,Militi Sancti Sepulcri; after 1291, the Knighthood was awarded to prominent pilgrims by theCustos of the Holy Land.[9] Reorganised asSacred and Military Order of the Holy Sepulchre in 1496 byPope Alexander VI. Reorganised byPope Pius IX with the residential restoration of theLatin Patriarchate of Jerusalem in 1847.[10] Known as theEquestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem since 1931.
Knights Templar
(Supreme Order of Christ)
(Order Of Christ)		c. 1118 – c. 1312Bernard of Clairvaux,
Hugues de Payens		Jerusalem,Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem1129 byPope Honorius II
until 1312 byPope Clement V		Pope: 1129–13121312TheKnights Templar order was reconstituted inPortugal after the Templars were abolished on 22 March 1312 by thepapal bull,Vox in excelso, issued byPope Clement V.[11][12] KingDinis I of Portugal created theOrder of Christ (Portugal) in 1317 for those knights who survived their trials throughout Europe and was officially founded in 1319,[13][14][15] The property of the Templars was transferred to theKnights Hospitaller except in the Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal. In effect, causing the dissolution of the Templars by the rival order.[16][17]

Thus when being recognized, the Pope allowing only the "Order Of Christ" a Portuguese order andits Papal branchSupreme Order of Christ can claim to have any descent from the Templars, which is now used for Honorary State merits in Portugal and preserved as such.[16][18][19]

Order of Saint Lazarus
(Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus)		c. 1118 – c. 1608Jerusalem,Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem1255 byPope Alexander IV
until 1489 byPope Innocent VIII		KingFulk of Jerusalem: 1142
Pope:c. 1255-1572
House of Savoy: 1572-
House of France: 1609–1830.		1489,
1572,
1609,
1830
(1856)		Italian branch merged 1572 with theOrder of Saint Maurice to form theOrder of Saints Maurice and Lazarus under the RoyalHouse of Savoy, still extant.

In 1609, KingHenry IV of France linked it in France administratively to theOrder of Our Lady of Mount Carmel to form theRoyal Military and Hospitaller Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel and Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem united, which remained listed as of royal protection in the FrenchRoyal Almanac until 1830.[20]

Teutonic Knightsc. 1192Acre,
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem		The main stem of the Teutonic Knights converted into a purelyCatholic religious order in 1929.
TheBailiwick of Utrecht of the Teutonic Order separated from the Roman Catholic mainstem during the time of theReformation and continues as a Protestant chivalric order.[21]

National

[edit]
SymbolNameFoundedFounderOriginRecognitionProtectionExtinctionNotes
Order of Saint James of Altopascio1075
(1084)		Matilda of TuscanyAltopascio,Tuscany,Holy Roman Empire1239–1459,
butmentioned in aPapal bull 1198 ofPope Innocent III		Properties of thehospice of "Altopassus" inItalyconfirmed in 1244 byEmperor Frederick II1459,
1587,
1672		Primarily provided safety and protection to Italianpilgrims to theHoly Land andCamino de Santiago. Merged with theOrder of Saint Stephen in 1587 byPope Sixtus V at request ofGrand Duke of Tuscany. In France absorbed into theOrder of Saint Lazarus in 1672.
Military Order of Monreal [es]1124KingAlfonso the BattlerMonreal del Campo,Aragon1143
1150
Order of Aviz1176
(Évora)Avis,PortugalHouse of Aviz: 1385–15801789Secularised 1789. Statutes revised repeatedly together with the other Portuguese orders of merit, during the First Republic (1910–1926), then in 1962, and again in 1986.
Order of Saint Michael of the Wing1147
(1171)
(1828/
1848/
1986)		KingAfonso I of PortugalSantarém, PortugalFirst statutes approved in 1171 byPope Alexander IIIHouse of Braganza: 2001-1732Abandoned by 1732,[22] restored[23] byKing Miguel I in 1828[24] during his brief rule before losing theLiberal Wars to his brotherKing Pedro IV,[25] revived 1848[23]/1986[26]
Order of Calatrava1158Raymond of FiteroCalatrava la Vieja,Kingdom of Castile,Spain1164 byPope Alexander IIIHouse of Bourbon1838 by secularisationKingCharles III of Spain requested old orders to contribute to his new order in his name (1775), which led to dissolution. Confiscated by King Joseph (1808), re-established byFerdinand VII at the Restoration (1814). Secularised in 1838.
Order of the Holy Ghost1161Guy de MontpellierProvence,Franceca. 1161–June 16, 1216 byPope Innocent III inSanto Spirito in Sassia,Rome1692/
1700/
20th century		Historically both religious and chivalric. In 1692 in France, KingLouis XIV merged it with his ownOrder of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. The remaining organisation wasedicted in 1700 as purely religious order.[27] Offshoots of the order in France survived into the 20th century.
Order of Aubrac1162Aubrac,France18th centuryDisappeared during theFrench Revolution in late in the 18th century.
Order of Santiago1170León orUclés inCastile,SpainByPapal bull 5 July 1175 byPope Alexander IIIHouse of Bourbon
Order of Alcántara1177Alcántara,Extremadura,Spain
Order of Mountjoy1180Holy Land1221Merged into theOrder of Calatrava.
Order of Truxillobefore 1188Trujillo, Cáceres1195
Hospitallers of Saint Thomas of Canterbury at Acre1191William, Chaplain to the DeanAcre, and

England

1538
Order of Monfragüe11961221Merged into theOrder of Calatrava.
Order of Sant Jordi d'Alfama120115th centuryEarly 15th century, merged into theOrder of Montesa.
Livonian Brothers of the Sword12021236Merged into theTeutonic Order as theOrder of Livonia, disbanded 1561.
Order of Dobrzyń1216Dobrzyń Land,Poland1240Small number, maximum 35 knights. Battled by thePrussians, around 1235 most knights joined theTeutonic Order. In 1237 the rest of the brothers reinforcedDrohiczyn by order of Konrad. Last mentioned when Drohiczyn was captured byPrince Daniel ofKiev in 1240.
Militia of the Faith of Jesus Christ12211285Note: Symbol that of theDominican Order. Merged into theThird Order of Saint Dominic.
Order of the Faith and Peace12311273
Knights of the Cross with the Red Star1233Agnes of BohemiaBohemia1237 byPope Gregory IX
Confirmed 1292 by ambassador ofPope Nicholas IV		Mainly hospitals, in Bohemia still existing.
Militia of Jesus Christ1233Bartolomeo da VicenzaParma22 December 1234 byPope Gregory IX.1250sNote: Symbol that of the Dominican Order. Disappeared mid-13th century.
Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary1261Loderingo degli Andalò, Catalano dei Malavolti, Ugolino LambertiniBologna23 December 1261 byPope Urban IV1556
Order of Saint Mary of Spain12701280Merged into theOrder of Santiago.
Order of Montesa1317
Order of the Knights of Our Lord Jesus Christ
(Knights Templar)		1317
1917		Portugal1789
1910		Secularized 1789.
Order of the Dragon1408Sigismund of LuxemburgHungary1475sActive throughout the 15th century in the Balkans[28]
Order of Saint Maurice1434Amedeo VIII of SavoyChâteau de Ripaille,Thonon-les-Bains,Savoy1572Merged with theOrder of Saint Lazarus inItaly in 1572 byPope Gregory XIII intoOrder of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, considered the legitimate successor of both by theICOC.
Order of the Tower and Sword1459KingAfonso V of PortugalPortugalRevived 1808 by Prince Regent John, laterJohn VI of Portugal. Since theend of the monarchy in 1910, all military orders abolished except the Order of the Tower and Sword, with President of Portugalex officio its Grand Master.
Order of Our Lady of Bethlehem1459Pope Pius IILemnos,Byzantine Empire18 January 1459 byPope Pius II1460Founded in 1453 byPope Pius II after theFall of Constantinople to theOttoman Empire, to defend the island ofLemnos, soon recaptured by the Turks, thus rendered useless and suppressed almost as soon as founded.[29][30]
Order of Saint George of Carinthia1469EmperorFrederick III, Holy Roman EmperorIn 1469 byPope Paul IIAbolished 26 July 1598
(1732?)
Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George1522–1545
(1520?)(1550?)		Angeli Comneni familyAddressed in 1550 byPope Julius III
Cardinal protector in 1910 byPope Pius X		Decrees by KingPhilip III of Spain,Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor on 7 November 1630Appears to have been established between 1520 and 1545, with certainstatutes dated 1522 by theAngeli Comneni family. ItsGrand MasterAndrea Angelo Flavio Comneno was addressed first in 1550 byPapal bullQuod Aliasla byPope Julius III.
Order of Saint Stephen Pope and Martyr15 March 1561Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of TuscanyTuscany1 October 1561 byPope Pius IVFounded asBenedictine order byCosimo I de' Medici,.[31][32] dedicated to the martyredPope Stephen I and the victories at theBattle of Montemurlo in 1537 and theBattle of Marciano (Scannagallo) in 1554. Fought theOttoman Turks and pirates in theMediterranean Sea. Abolished in 1859 by theannexation of Tuscany to theKingdom of Sardinia.[33] Present, Catholic continuation claimed by Archduke Sigismund, Grand Duke of Tuscany.[34][35]

Other

[edit]

Chivalric and/or military orders that could qualify depending on definition.

Modern development

[edit]

A few of the institutions survived into honorific and/or charitable organizations, including thepapal orders of knighthood.

While other contemporary Catholic societies may share some military organizational features and ideology, such as theSociety of Jesus,[37] they differ from the medieval military orders in the absence of military purposes or potential.

Modern orders may still be founded explicitly as a military order; the Military Order of Loyalty (Spanish:Orden Militar de la Constancia) was founded in 1946 by theSpanish protectorate in Morocco. Awarded to both Spanish and Moroccanmilitary officers andsoldiers, the single-class order was abolished in 1956.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^McCreery, Christopher (2008).The Maple Leaf and the White Cross: A History of St. John Ambulance and the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in Canada. Dundurn. p. 187.ISBN 9781770702806.there are only five legitimate and mutually recognized Orders of St. John that continue to carry on the historic work of the Knights Hospitaller. These are the Sovereign Military and Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta (The Order of Malta), Die Balley Brandenburg des Ritterlichen Ordens Sankt Johannis vom Spital zu Jerusalem, commonly known as the Johanniter Orden (Germany), Johanniter Orde in Nederland (Netherland), Johanniterorden I Sverige (Sweden), and the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem (Order of St. John, sometimes referred to as the Most Venerable Order). In 1961, an alliance was formed between the Most Venerable Order, the Johanniter ORden, Johanniter Orde in Nederland, and Johanniterorden I Sverige; these four orders compromise the Alliance of the Orders of St. John.
  2. ^Demurger, Alain (2005).Les Templiers. Une chevalerie chrétienne au Moyen Age. Paris: Éditions du Seuil.ISBN 9782021008340.Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved2021-04-11.
  3. ^Crawford, Paul (1996)."The Military Orders: Introduction".The ORB: On-line Reference Book for Medieval Studies. Archived fromthe original on 6 October 2014.
  4. ^Michael Jones ed.,The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 6: c. 1300 - c. 1415, (Cambridge, 1998), p. 209.
  5. ^Jotischky 2004, pp. 199–205.
  6. ^Jotischky 2004, pp. 202–203.
  7. ^Tyerman 2019, pp. 315–327.
  8. ^Tyerman 2019, pp. 328–333.
  9. ^D'Assemani, Michael H Abraham,The Cross on the Sword, A History of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem ,1944.
  10. ^"Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem".Archived from the original on 18 January 2015. Retrieved24 January 2015.
  11. ^Robert Ferguson (26 August 2011).The Knights Templar and Scotland. History Press Limited. p. 39.ISBN 978-0-7524-6977-5.
  12. ^Jochen Burgtorf; Paul F. Crawford; Helen J. Nicholson (28 June 2013).The Debate on the Trial of the Templars (1307–1314). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 298.ISBN 978-1-4094-8102-7.
  13. ^Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913)."Order of the Knights of Christ" .Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  14. ^Matthew Anthony Fitzsimons; Jean Bécarud (1969).The Catholic Church today: Western Europe. University of Notre Dame Press. p. 159.
  15. ^Helen J. Nicholson (1 January 2004).The Crusades. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 98.ISBN 978-0-313-32685-1.
  16. ^abJosé Vicente de Bragança, The Military Order of Christ and the Papal Croce di Cristo
  17. ^Martin, pp. 140–142.
  18. ^"Note of Clarification from the Secretariat of State".news.va. Pontifical Council for Social Communication. 16 October 2012. Archived fromthe original on 18 October 2016. Retrieved27 November 2012.Vatican City,(VIS)-
  19. ^Noonan, Jr., James-Charles (1996).The Church Visible: The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic Church. Viking. p. 196.ISBN 0-670-86745-4.
  20. ^Moeller, Charles. "The Military Orders." The Catholic EncyclopediaArchived 2017-07-15 at theWayback Machine Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 22 Jun. 2015
  21. ^Riley-Smith, Jonathan Simon Christopher (1999).The Oxford History of the Crusades.Oxford University Press.ISBN 9780192853646.Teutonic knights are still to be found only in another interesting survival, Ridderlijke Duitse Orde Balije van Utrecht (The Bailiwick of Utrecht of the Teutonic Order). Like the Hospitaller Bailiwick of Brandenburg, this commandery turned itself into a noble Protestant confraternity at the time of the Reformation.
  22. ^Anderson, James (1732).Royal genealogies: or, The genealogical tables of emperors, kings and princes, from Adam to these times; in two parts. London: James Bettenham. pp. ix. Retrieved9 December 2011.St Michael's Wing in Portugal founded by the said King Alphonse 1165 or 1171 after his obtaining a notable Victory over Moors and Alberto King of Seville in which Battle MICHAEL the Arch Angel is said to appear on the right Side of Alphonse and fight against them. This Order is now out of use.(1732)
  23. ^abAlmeida, Gomes Abrunhosa Marques de and Manuel Ângelo (2007).Precedentes histórico-teóricos dos regionalismos dos Açores e da Galiza. Santiago de Compostela: Univ Santiago de Compostela. p. 187.
  24. ^Cheke, Marcus (1969).Carlota Joaquina, queen of Portugal (Reprinted. ed.). Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press. p. 195.ISBN 978-0-8369-5040-3.
  25. ^Jenks, George C (1911).Monarchs in Exile,The Bookman vol. 32. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co. p. 273.
  26. ^Sainty, Guy Stair (2006-11-22)."Royal Order of Saint Michael of the Wing".rec.heraldry.Archived from the original on 2012-11-09. Retrieved2011-01-21.While the Duke of Braganza is the unquestioned heir and successor of Dom Miguel, the institution of the Royal Brotherhood of St Michael of the Wing is better seen as a modern memorial revival of the original institution than any kind of continuation of the Miguelist award.
  27. ^Orders of the Holy GhostArchived 2019-08-30 at theWayback Machine -Catholic Encyclopedia article
  28. ^Von Luxemburg, Sigismund; Curtin, D. P. (January 2024).Charter of the Order of the Dragon.ISBN 9798869346247.
  29. ^Besse, Jean. "Bethlehemites." The Catholic EncyclopediaArchived 2023-06-21 at theWayback Machine Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 23 Jun. 2015
  30. ^Trollope, Thomas Anthony.An encyclopædia ecclesiastica, 1834
  31. ^Villari, Pasquale (1911)."Medici" . InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–41.
  32. ^Woodhouse, Frederick Charles (1879).The military religious orders of the Middle Ages: the Hospitallers, the Templars, the Teutonic knights, and others. With an appendix of other orders of knighthood: legendary, honorary, and modern. New York: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 338.The members followed the rule of St Benedict and the Popes granted them the same privileges as those enjoyed by the Knights Hospitallers
  33. ^Carmichael, Montgomery (1901).In Tuscany: Tuscan Towns, Tuscan Types and the Tuscan Tongue. New York: E P Dutton. p. 173.The Order was swept away by the French Revolution but was revived again in a modified form in 1817. The Italian Revolution once more swept it away beyond hope of revival on 16 November 1859 and its Church and property became the property of the State. Alas that modern Italy should not be a little more tender of the memories of her past glories.
  34. ^Bernardini, Rodolfo (1990).Il Sacro Militare Ordine di Santo Stefano Papa e Martire (in Italian). Pisa: Familiare della Casa Asburgo Lorena.
  35. ^Cardinale, Hyginus Eugene (1983).Orders of knighthood awards and the Holy See. Gerrards Cross: Van Duren. p. 157.ISBN 978-0-905715-13-1.
  36. ^Nicolás, Bruno Rigalt y (1858).Diccionario histórico de las Ordenes de Caballería religiosas,civiles y militares de todas las naciones del mundo,desde los primeros tiempos hasta nuestros dias. [...] (in Spanish). Narciso Ramirez. p. 55.
  37. ^Harro Höpfl (2004), Jesuit Political Thought: The Society of Jesus and the State, c. 1540–1630, Cambridge; p. 25

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