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Themilitary of Safavid Iran covers the military history ofSafavid Iran from 1501 to 1736.

It was the first Safavid king (shah),Ismail I (1501–1524), who laid foundation to the Safavid military. Its origins date back to 1500, when Ismail decided to come out of hiding fromLahijan, a city inGilan, northernIran. On his way toAzerbaijan, he recruited followers, and had already recruited 450 atRasht and 1,500 atTarom. By summer, Ismail had already gathered 7,000 followers, mostlyTurkmens fromAsia Minor, whom he had rallied together inErzincan, while the rest wereIranians, mainly from northern Iran. Ismailfought theShirvanshahFarrukh Yassar during the same year, where his army is said to have ranged from 7,000 to 40,000.^[1]

Another founding element of the Safavid armies, alongside the Turkomans and the Iranians, were ethnicGeorgians.^[2] Numerous contemporary independentVenetian sources report that, as early as 1499, Ismail had Christian cavalry at his disposal.^[2] According to a contemporary Venetian merchant, a certain Morati Augurioto, who returned to Venice fromTabriz in 1503, the majority of the Safavid troops in the city were of Georgian origin.^[3] When Ismail founded the Safavid state in about 1500, theQizilbash numbered some 7,000, whereas the number of the Georgians, part of the larger (i.e. the entire) Safavid army, numbered about 9,000.^[3] After the decisiveBattle of Chaldiran (1514), Georgian light cavalry of the Safavid army intensively harassed the retreating Ottoman troops, deep into the Ottoman realm.^[3]

Of the posts that were considered to be "pillars of the state" (rokn ol-dowleh, orarkan ol-dowleh), at least three were from the military administration; theqollar-aghasi, thequrchi-bashi, and thetofangchi-aghasi.^[4][a]

At least three of the leading commanding posts had a reserved seat in the small inner council (or privy), known as thejanqi. Thejanqi was a part of the royal council, and was basically responsible for governing the country. Membership of thejanqi was limited to the officials of utmost importance. All three aforementioned high-ranking military officials, considered to be "pillars of the state", were also recorded as being part of thejanqi by the end of the Safavid period.^[5] The commander-in-chief (sepahsalar) also joined the inner council when military matters were discussed.^[6]

The office of commander-in-chief (sepahsalar(-e Iran),amir ol-omara), was one of the highest-ranking functions. In the early days of the Safavid Empire, the holders of the office were usuallyQizilbash lords ofTurkoman stock. However, from the early 17th century onwards, the post became pretty much dominated by non-Qizilbash, especiallygholams ofGeorgian origin. Another feature that became almost characteristic for the office was that, from the seventeenth century onwards, it was combined with that of the governorship of theAzerbaijan Province.^[8]

Until 1533, the post of commander-in-chief was combined with that of viceregent (vakil).^[9] Sensing the considerable amount of influence that was yielded by these individuals, who thus held both posts, in 1533 Tahmasp decided to reduce the significance of the commander-in-chief, and implemented that no one could be reappointed to the post ofvakil as well.^[9] By the late 1530s, the commander-in-chief was no longer the most important military commander in the empire amongst the Qizilbash lords, as Tahmasp I created the function ofbeglarbeg (governor, governor-general), who was also the commander-in-chief in his own province.^[9] These important governors had full authority over the provincial amirs.^[9] In other words, there was no longer one supremeamir ol-omara anymore, but more than ten.^[9] This considerably diminished the power of the Qizilbash lords, and strengthened the central authority.^[9]

Until the early seventeenth century, thesepahsalar(-e Iran) / amir ol-omara was equal in rank to thequrchi-bashi. From the early seventeenth century onwards, he was subordinate in rank to theqollar-aghasi andqurchi-bashi.^[8] Nevertheless, because of its importance and the fact that the holder was also often a provincial governor, he also had a deputy (na'eb) and avizier.^[8] There were even commanders-in-chief that held more positions at the same time.^[8] For example,Rostam Beg (later "khan") simultaneously held the positions ofsepahsalar / amir ol-omara,tofangchi-aghasi, anddivanbegi (chancellor, chief justice).^[8]

According toMirza Naqi Nasiri, a high-ranking court official, thesepahsalar had supreme command of the army in time of war.^[8] Towards the end of the Safavid era the holder of the function was one of thecouncil amirs, and, together with theqollar-aghasi, the two most important military officials after thequrchi-bashi.^[10] WhenHosaynqoli Khan (Vakhtang VI) was appointedsepahsalar, he was also given amarshal's baton.^[11] According to theIranologist Willem Floor, this was the first time mentioned in historical records, that asepahsalar was given such an item, distinct for afield marshal.^[11]

Thequrchi-bashi (also spelledqorchi-bashi) was the commander of the royal bodyguard (the (qurchis) of the Safavid king. It was the oldest state rank of the Safavid Empire, and a "very important" official of the central government.^[12] He was always selected from thequrchi corps itself.^[12] Nevertheless, this did not create a mandatory prequisite forqurchis to be commanded by aqurchi commander. For example, during the sixteenth century,qurchis were often commanded in the field by other officials than from thequrchi ranks, including by high-rankinggholams, such as Mokhles Beg Gorji (aGeorgian).^[12]

Thequrchi-bashi functioned in the same way to thequrchis, as the local lords to theQizilbashtayefeh oril (i.e. tribal unit, clan).^[12] Reportedly, none of thequrchi-bashis possessed the rank of "khan", though some did have the rank of "beg".^[12] According to Masashi Haneda, this apparently indicated that even though it was a function of utmost importance, it was not considered to be a function of "the first-order".^[12] Haneda states that this is apparent through the Persian sources, which do not "pay attention to the nomination of thequrchi-bashi".^[12] The sources did pay attention to the appointment of theamir ol-omara,vakil orsadr. The conclusion according to Willem Floor is therefore, that thequrchis and thequrchi-bashi "played second-fiddle" to that of the leadingQizilbash lords.^[12]

During periods of weak central authority, the post was immediately taken by individuals from the leadingTurkoman Qizilbash tribes, i.e. theShamlu or Tekkelu.^[13] Thequrchi-bashi, alike all other important offices, had a deputy as well.^[13]

There were alsoqurchi-bashis who were stationed in some of the provinces and cities.^[14] For example, thevali (governor, viceroy) ofGeorgia had aqurchi corps to serve him, including aqurchi-bashi, and a legion of specialized qurchis for his "accoutrements" (i.e.qurchi-e zereh,qurchi-e kafsh,qurchi-e tarkesh, etc.).^[15] These "provincialqurchi-bashis" however, were all subordinate to thesupremequrchi-bashi.^[15]

Theqollar-aghasi (also spelledqullar-aqasi) was the commander of the empire's élitegholam (military slave) corps. Soon after its creation, it had already become one of the most important officials in the empire.^[16] This fact is reflected in the choice of numerousqollar-aghasis. For example, the most famous general ofAbbas I (r. 1588-1629), the celebratedAllahverdi Khan, was the secondqollar-aghasi.^[16] The firstqollar-aghasi ofSafi's reign wasKhosrow Mirza of theBagrationi dynasty, who later served asvali (viceroy) of Kartli, and was given the name of Rostam Khan.^[16] His successor was a Georgian fromImereti,Siyavosh Beg. Though some of the laterqollar-aghasis were of non-gholam origin, the function was dominated bygholams, many of whom were of Georgian origin.^[16]

By the end of the Safavid era, theqollar-aghasi and thesepahsalar / amir ol-omara were the most important military officials in the empire, after thequrchi-bashi.^[17] Theqollar-aghasi was one of the six "pillars of the state" (rokn ol-dowleh), and an amir of the council.^[18] He had supreme command over themin-bashis,yuz-bashis,qurs armed with muskets, and naturally allgholams.^[18] He also gave the verdict over cases in which his subordinates were involved.^[18] However, cases which involved religious law were given to theshar'i judges, whereas cases involving fiscal matters, were given to theGrand Vizier.^[18]

Younggholams came under the command of theqollar-aghasi when they started to have beard growth, and they were subsequently organized into units of 100 and 10.^[18] The "rank-and-file" came under the jurisdiction of theyuz-bashi who themselves were assisted by thedah-bashis oron-bashis.^[18]

TheTupchi-bashi was the commander of the empire's artillery corps. Organized just like the other army units, he was assisted by an administrative staff as well as officers of lower rank.^[19] Thetupchi-bashi was responsible for theartillery battery (tup-khaneh) and needed materials in relation to the artillery pieces as well.^[20] He had supreme command over allmin-bashis,yuz-bashis,tupchis, andjarchis of the artillery department.^[20] Thetupchi-bashi also appointed all these aforementioned officers of lower rank, and he had to approve of their pay as well.^[20] In 1660, reportedly, his salary amounted 2,000tomans per year, and formally, he was equal to the commander of the musketeer corps (tofangchi-aghasi).^[20] In terms of administration, themostoufi of thegholam corps also took care of thetup-khaneh of thetupchi-bashi.^[20]

When in 1655 thetupchi-bashi Hoseinqoli Khan died, kingAbbas II (r. 1642-1666) did not appoint a new one.^[21] Thejabbehdar-bashi ("head of the royal arsenal") took over its role temporarily until 1660-1661.^[21] Floor mentions that the post may then have become vacant afterwards, for a few years.^[21]

The termtupchi-bashi was also used to designate the commanders of local artillery batteries in the various cities and provinces of the empire.^[22] A proper example of this would be the year 1701, when one of the artillerymen (tupchis) inTiflis was appointedvakil ("regent") of the tupchi-bashi of Tiflis fortress.^[22]

The office oftupchi-bashi ranked evidently lower than thesepahsalar,qollar-aghasi andqurchi-bashi, and his salary was thus lower as well.^[23] According toEngelbert Kaempfer, thetupchi-bashi also served as an admiral, though there was basically no effective Safavid fleet until 1734.^[24]

TheTofangchi-aghasi (also spelledtufangchi-aqasi and otherwise known astofangchi-bashi) was the commander of the Safavid Empire'smusketeer corps. Thetofangchi-aghasi was assisted by numerous officers, i.e.minbashis,yuzbashis,dahbashis, as well as an administrative staff (i.e.vizier,mostoufi), who dealt with themuster rolls.^[25] Apart from thetofangchis, he also held supreme command over thejarchibashis,rikas (staff bearers armed with pole axes), andtabardars of the musketeer corps.^[26] He was one of the sixrokn ol-dowleh ("pillar of the state").

Though the tofangchi-aghasi was considered to be a high-ranking office on paper, de facto, it was one of the lowest on the "military totem-pole", in other words, military hierarchy.^[27] For example, thetofangchi-aghasi, despite being arokn ol-dowleh, was not a member of the inner royal council.^[27] Nevertheless, the post was generally held byscions of noble families.^[27]

Under the Safavids, Iran was one of theGunpowder Empires, a trio of Islamic great powers that dominated North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia from the early 16th to mid 18th centuries. However, it was by far the least populous of the three (with an estimated 8 to 10 million people in 1600)^[28] and thus had the smallest army. Moreover it did not make use of gunpowder to the same extent as theOttomans or contemporary European powers. Until c. 1600, firearms were present but had a minor role, with even simple siege cannons seeing rare use.Abbas I was the first ruler to establish a significant corps of musketeers and a separate corps of artillery, which were relatively effective but were always outnumbered by masses of cavalry armed with lances, swords, and bows. The musket corps did not significantly expand, while the artillery corps faded out of existence after Abbas I's reign. By the mid-18th century, most Safavid troops were still using traditional weapons. It was not until partway through the rule ofNader Shah (1736-1747), founder of the Afsharid dynasty, that the majority of an Iranian empire's troops would be equipped with firearms for the first time.^[29]

TheQizilbash was aShia militant group which mostly consisted of Turkoman tribes, but also Iranian ones, such as the Talysh and certainKurdish tribes. The largest tribes of the Qizilbash were the Ustajlu, the Rumlu, theShamlu, the Zul Qadr, the Tekkelu, theAfshar and theQajar—all Turkmens.^[30] The Qizilbash were the main factor of the foundation of the Safavid dynasty and the conquest of Iran. Unlike thegholam corps, the Qizilbash did not rely on payment from royal treasury, but were instead granted land. In return, they supplied the Safavid shah with troops and provisions.^[31]

During the reign of Ismail, the Qizilbash almost saw him as a divine person, and regarded him as the representative of the hiddenImamMuhammad al-Mahdi. A group drawn from the Qizilbash, known as the "ahl-i ikhtisas", was a small group of officers, who had kept theSafaviyya order alive during Ismail's refuge in Gilan. These officers included a lala ("tutor", "guardian"), and many others.^[32] Ismail later adopted a policy by trying to avoid appointing the Qizilbash to the powerfulvakil (vicegerent) office, and instead appointed his Iranian kinsmen to high offices, the first one beingMir Najm Zargar Gilani. This was because Ismail had lost some trust to the Qizilbash, who possessed too much power and were no longer very trustworthy.^[33][34]

The fifth Safavid shahAbbas I (r. 1588–1629), made thegholam corps much stronger in order to counterbalance the power and influence of the Qizilbash.^[35] Furthermore, he appointed non-Qizilbash officers as the governors of provinces which the Qizilbash used to govern.^[1]

Theroyal bodyguard of the shah was known as thequrchi. The qurchis were theoretically enlisted from the Qizilbash tribes and were paid by money taken from theroyal treasury. Though recruited mainly from among the Qizilbash, it was an independent and distinct corps from the Qizilbash army units.^[36] During the early Safavid period, the qurchis were all from the same tribe, but that later changed. The head of the qurchis was known as thequrchi-bashi. They numbered 3,000 under the Ismail I and 5,000 underTahmasp I (r. 1524–1576).^[1][37]

Under Abbas I, the qurchis had become much more important and numbered 10,000-15,000. Abbas I gave several of qurchis governorship of large provinces, which decreased the power of the Qizilbash commanders, who were used to govern large provinces. During the late reign of Abbas' reign, the qurchi-bashi was the most powerful office of the empire.^[1]

Local rulers also hadqurchis at their disposal, though they were limited in number.^[15] Thevali (governor, viceroy) ofGeorgia had aqurchi corps to serve him, including aqurchi-bashi, and a legion of specialized qurchis for his "accoutrements" (i.e.qurchi-e zereh,qurchi-e kafsh,qurchi-e tarkesh, etc.).^[15]

Theghilman consisted of formerChristians fromCaucasus, mainlyGeorgians,Circassians, andArmenians.^[38] The singular form isgholam, and the term refers to soldiers who were slaves of the emperor and was generally similar to thejanissary system of the neighbouringOttoman Empire in its implementation and formation.^[39][40] Unlike Ottoman slaves, Safavid slaves were allowed to inherit "their father's assignments", which explains "the Safavid particularity of factions centred on slave families".^[41]

According to Babaev, the gholam unit was created by Abbas after the assassination of the powerful Qizilbash figureMurshid Quli Khan in 1588/9.^[1] This is proven by the appointment of Yulqoli as theqollar-aghasi, or chief of the ghilman, in 1589/90. However, the qollar-aghasi is also mentioned in 1583/4 during the reign of Abbas' father and predecessor,Mohammad Khodabanda (r. 1578–1587). The ghulam system was most likely created underTahmasp I's campaigns in Kartili and Kakheti in theSouth Caucasus.^[1]

As mentioned by theEncyclopædia Iranica, 1600 onwards, the Safavid statesmanAllahverdi Khan, in conjunction withRobert Shirley, undertook the reorganization of the army, which meant, among other things, dramatically increasing the number of ghilman from 4000 to 25,000.^[42]

Only after the reforms of Abbas c. 1600 did the Safavid military transition from a tribal horse archer force with few firearms to a primarily infantry musketeer army, becoming a match for the Ottomans.^[43]

It was during the vizierate ofSaru Taqi (1633-1645) under Abbas I that thegholams reached their zenith of power, occupying all the important offices of the Safavid state.^[44]

The Tupchi or "artillerist" unit was created under Ismail I and later reformed by Abbas I.^[45] The commander of the artillery corps was thetupchi-bashi. Although thetupchiyan proved potent in war, not much known is about them, and they are mostly mentioned in European sources.^[1]

Thetofangchi ("musketeer") unit was created under Ismail I and reformed by Abbas.^[46] The commander of the musketeer corps was thetofangchi-aghasi.Tofangchiyan were enlisted from different regions and coordinated under the name of the place they came from. For example, if one tofangchi unit was fromIsfahan, it became known thetofangchiyan-e Esfahan. The head of each tofangchi group was known as amin-bashi "chief of a thousand".^[47][1] The unit numbered 12,000 and mainly includedPersian peasants,Arabs, andTurkmens.^[48][47]

There were threetitles of honor in the Safavid military, the highest one being "khan", the second being "sultan", and the third being "beg". Although not many held the title of "khan" during the early Safavid period, it later increased.^[1]

• Defensive walls in Safavid Iran

• Blow, David (2009).Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who became an Iranian Legend. London, UK: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.ISBN 978-1-84511-989-8.LCCN 2009464064.
• Matthee, Rudi (2011).Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–371.ISBN 978-0857731814.
• Haneda, M. (1986)."ARMY iii. Safavid Period".Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5. pp. 503–506.
• Babaie, Sussan;Babayan, Kathryn; Baghdiantz-McCabe, Ina; Farhad, Massumeh (2004).Slaves of the Shah: New Elites of Safavid Iran. I.B.Tauris.ISBN 978-0857716866.
• Floor, Willem (2001).Safavid Government Institutions. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers. pp. 1–311.ISBN 978-1568591353.
• Newman, Andrew J. (2008).Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–281.ISBN 9780857716613.
• Savory, Roger (2007).Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–288.ISBN 978-0521042512.
• Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid period".The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: The Timurid and Safavid periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 189–351.ISBN 9780521200943.
• Mazzaoui, Michel M. (2002). "NAJM-E ṮĀNI".Encyclopaedia Iranica.

• Military history of Safavid Iran

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