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TheMilitary of the Mamluk Sultanate (Egyptian Arabic:جيش السلطنة المملوكية,Coptic:Ⲛⲉⲛⲁⲗⲁⲥⲱϯ ⲛ̀ⲙⲉⲧⲟⲩⲣⲟ ⲛ̀ⲙⲉⲙⲗⲟⲩⲕⲓ), officially known asAl-Asakir al-Masria (Egyptian Arabic:العساكر المصرية,lit. 'Egyptian troops',Coptic:Ⲛⲉⲛⲁⲗⲁⲥⲱϯ ⲛ̀ⲣⲉⲙⲛⲕⲏⲙⲓ) orAl-Askar al-Masri (Egyptian Arabic:العسكر المصري,lit. 'Egyptian troops') orAl-Jund al-Masri (Egyptian Arabic:الجند المصري,lit. 'Egyptian soldiers') orAl-Asakir al-Mansoura (Egyptian Arabic:العساكر المنصورة,lit. 'Victorious troops'), was the officialarmed forces of theEgyptian Mamluk Sultanate.[1][2][3]
The Mamluk Army was established in 1250 by the first Mamluk SultanAybak ofEgypt, but it was reformed in 1260 by SultanBaybars.[4][2][5][6]
The entire army did not have an official census, but as a percentage and proportion, the Egyptians were the vast majority of the army, and this is clear from the division of the army. If we were to suffice with comparing the Volunteer corps alone with all theMamluks (the Volunteer corps, which was larger than the entire regular army, we would also say that the vast majority were Egyptians)[7] the English traveler Sir John Mandeville mentioned inMandeville's Travels that the Sultan was able to leave Egypt with 200,000 soldiers,[8] and the Egyptian historianIbn Iyas mentioned that the number of the Egyptian army in thebattle of Marj al-Saffar, known as Shaqhab, was 200,000 soldiers, and the Mamluks at their maximum number did not complete 24,000 people, so the remaining 175,000 soldiers were Egyptians or the vast majority were Egyptians.[9]
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A lot of senior Egyptian commanders appeared in the army at that time, the most famous of whom wereEmirSaad al-Din bin Ghurab, EmirIzz al-Din al-Kawrani, EmirAlaa el-Din bin el-Emam, Emir Salah al-Din Khalil bin Aram, Emir Alaa al-Din al-Tablawi, Emir Ahmad al-Taylouni bin al-Muhandis, Emir Fakhr al-Din Iyas al-Jarjawi,Ibn bint el-Aqsarayi, Emir Hamo Lajin, EmirFakhr al-Din al-Qibti and others.[10][11][12]
The native Egyptian element was known to be the most faithful and loyal element of the army, and this became clear in many situations, the most important of which was when Sultanal-Ashraf Sha'ban bin Qalawun was putting down a rebellion against him in Cairo and all of his Mamluks deserted him and fled. What remained beside him were the Egyptian soldiers who defended him and defeated the rebels in theBattle of Cairo in late 1367.[13][14] One of the most important policies of Sultan El-Ashraf Sha'ban was to increase the number of indigenous Egyptians in the regular military corps.[15][14]
The army was disbanded by theOttomans following theCapture of Cairo in 1517.[16][17][18]
The Mamluk Army can be divided to two factions, which are the Egyptian Army and the Levantine Army.[10][11][12]
The Egyptian army which was officially calledAl-Asakir al-Masria orAl-Askar al-Masri orAl-Jund al-Masri orAl-Asakir al-Mansoura, was the army of Egypt and was made up mostly of nativeEgyptians.[8][10][9]
The army was divided throughout the Mamluk era, or with different periods, so there were 9 categories that made up the army, which are:[1][3]
The Royal or Sultanic Mamluks (المماليك السلطانية) were allMamluks and were similar to the modern-dayRepublican Guard with extra authority. They were under the direct authority of the Sultan and they were usually about 1,000 Mamluks.[19][20]
It consisted of three squads:
The Mamluks were sons ofkafir (non-Muslim) parents fromDar al-harb (non-Muslim lands); they were bought on the slave market as children, converted to Islam and brought up in military barracks where they were raised to become Muslim soldiers, during which they were raised, as slave children without families, to view the sultan as their father and the other mamluks as their brothers.[21] Their education was finished by the kharj ceremony, during which they were manumitted and given a position in either the courtly administration or the army, and free to begin a career as a free ex-slave Mamluk.[22] Mamluk slave soldiers were preferred to freeborn soldiers because they were raised to view the army and their sultan-ruler as their family and thus seen as more loyal than a freeborn soldier who would have a biological family to whom they would have their first loyalty.[23]
TheAjnad al-Halqa (أجناد الحلقة) or simply theHalqa were made up of both Egyptians andAwlad al-Nas (children of the Mamluks). On this basis, they were the army of the state that did not change with the change of the Sultan. They were usually present in camps on the borders of Cairo, and many camps inSharqia,Alexandria,Damietta,Suez,Faiyum,Asyut, and the ports of theRed Sea. They also had camps in the cities of theHejaz and the cities of theLevant, such asDamascus,Aleppo,Baalbek,Homs, andDiyarbakır.
Every thousand of them were supervised by one of the Emirs. He was required to be familiar with their homes and place of residence in order to gather them upon request. This Emir had no authority over them except during war. TheHalqa was considered the striking force of the army and its soldiers occupied the first positions of honor in all the various official ceremonies, and their names were side by side with the names of the Emirs in the official ceremonies, especially the oath ceremony upon the Sultan's accession to the throne of the Sultanate, and were under the direct command of the sultan, there was a faction within theHalqa called theArbab al-Heraf (أرباب الحرف) which was made up of Egyptians only and was similar to modern-day engineering corps.[19][24]
Halqa troops were the heart and backbone of the Egyptian army.[19][24]
The Summoned forces or Al-Radif (قوات الإستدعاء أو الرديف) were made up of both Egyptians and Mamluks and were Summoned in times of war and some of them are part of theHalqa troops.[7][20][24]
Thewāfidiyya (الوافدية) were troops of various ethnic backgrounds who came into the military service of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate in exchange for asylum. The term is acollective noun formed from the singularwāfid, meaning "one who comes, makes his way, in a delegation or group".[25]
Thewāfidiyya were predominantlyMongols,Kurds,Khwarazmians and otherTurkics. TheMamlūks, themselves mostly Turkic, regarded the Mongols as co-ethnics. Large numbers of Kurds and Khwarazmians fled theMongol conquest of Khwarazmia and took refuge in Egyptian Syria. This preceded the first major influx of Mongolwāfidiyya that took place in the aftermath of the firstMongol invasion of Syria in 1260, during the reign of SultanBaybars (1260–77). The bulk of thewāfidiyya were settled in the devastated parts of Syria and Palestine, while only their leaders were allowed to settle in Egypt. Another large influx of 10–18,000 Mongolwāfidiyya from theIlkhanate took place under Sultanal-ʿĀdil Kitbughā (1295–97), himself anOirat Mongol.[25]
Baybars was purportedly frightened by the sudden influx of soldiers seeking asylum and sought to disperse ethnic Mongols throughout the army. He did allow some to join the eliteBaḥriyya regiment. He was said to have appointedwāfidiyya up to the rank of "emir of a hundred" (amīr miʾa), but only one Khwarazmianwāfid, related to Baybars by marriage, is known to have attained this rank. There were between 113 and 300 leaders among those who sought asylum from Kitbughā in 1296. Their supreme leader, Ṭurghāy, received the rank of "emir of forty" (amīr arbaʿīn), perhaps because he was a son-in-law of theIlkhanHülegü.[25]
Kitbughā favoured the Oiratwāfidiyya and this led in part to his downfall. The Oirats remained politically important at the start of the reign ofal-Nasir Mahammad bin Qalawun (1309–41), but by 1333 some had been reduced servants (atbāʿ) of the Mamlūks. This represented a complete inversion of their original statuses. The Sultan Kitbughā and the regentSayf al-Din Salar, both Oirats, had entered Egypt as slaves and risen through the Mamlūk ranks to the highest positions, whereas the Oiratwāfidiyya had entered Egypt as free men and been reduced to servile status within a generation or two.[25]
The Arab Knights (فرسان العربان) were theBedouin Arab tribes that inhabited Egypt, and they were distinguished by their agility and speed of attack and flight.
The Volunteer forces (المتطوعة, المطوعة) were made up of Egyptians only, and they were the ones to whom mobilization calls were directed before any war,[26] and their number alone was often greater than the number of the entire army, according to the testimony of the historianIbn Taghribirdi:[7]
"And the commoners (Volunteer forces) are more than the troops in service."[7]
The Emirs and their Mamluks (الأمراء ومماليكهم) were Mamluk soldiers, Egyptian leaders, and Mamluk leaders.[3][1][7]
Every Emir had a group of Mamluks to accompany him on his departure and travel and to be with him on the battlefields. They were usually camped outside Cairo, and the number of Emirs’ soldiers was limited, as new Mamluks always replaced those who had become obsolete.[1][3][7]
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The soldiers of the emirs were directly commanded by the emirs, but could be mobilized by the sultan when needed.[6]
TheAl-Ghozah orAl-Ghaz orAl-Zuer (الغزاة أو الغز أو الزعر) were made up of Egyptians only, who were trained in their own camps. After completing their training, they were distributed among the Al-Ghozah brigades in the Egyptian army, and each of them receives a fixed salary from the army office. The salary of an Egyptian soldier in the Al-Ghozah during the era of SultanBarsbay of Egypt was 20 dinars. The Al-Ghozah soldiers were the largest faction in the Egyptian army that participated in theconquest of Cyprus in the year 1426. This is in addition to their major achievements in theconquest of Tripoli in theLevant and thefirst andsecond Mamluk-Ottoman wars.[7][10]
TheAl-Ajnad al-Bataalyn (الأجناد البطالين) was made up of Egyptians only, it was the Egyptian technician corps.[27][7]
Theal-Harafish were made up of Egyptians only, composed of the lowest of the general class and therefore of the lowest social classes in general. They are united by want and poverty, although some of them were owners of a craft or profession, or fled from rural areas due to the spread of diseases, poverty, hunger, and epidemics. Thus, the individual among them moved to cities and urban areas in the hope of changing their situation. And when they were unable to achieve their goals, they resort to theHarfshah to escape from their failure to change their conditions. Among them were those who were notable and became poor, and found in the life of theHarfshah a means of escaping and forgetting their reality, such as Ibn al-Sahib Alam al-Din Ahmad bin Yusuf bin Abdullah bin Shukr.[28][29]
They were mentioned for the first time in theFatimid era, and some of them were distinguished by their steadfastness and strength due to the professions in which they worked, including workers, sewage cleaners, mud cleaners, and wrestlers. Therefore, the government realized the extent of the popular strength of theHarafish group and thus followed a balanced policy towards them, characterized by the use of the least possible means of violence, and taking advantage of them in military campaigns, civil wars, and internal strife.[28][29][30]
In theAyyubid era, theHarafish were famous for their great courage and their bravery in battles since the Ayyubid era. They were among those who fought in theBattle of Mansoura, and they were the ones who carried out raids on the camps of the Crusaders during theSeventh Crusade. They were the heroes of most of the wars of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate, and they were famous for their leadership and insistence on theconquest of Acre, theirconquest of Antioch, and their pursuit of theMongol Ilkhanids inthe Battle of Marj al-Saffar and other battles.[28][29][30]
Most of the sultans of Egypt relied on theal-Harafish brigades in Egypt's wars and also to stabilize their rule. The most famous of them were the sultans of the Qalawunid dynasty, to whom theal-Harafish brigades were completely loyal.[28][29][30]
During thesiege of Acre, theal-Harafish led a major demonstration in front of the tent of the Sultanal-Ashraf Khalil bin Qalawun, demanding the continuation of the siege and the absence of peace with the Crusaders. Sultan Khalil immediately agreed to their demands. Khalil bin Qalawun was famous for his love for the Egyptian soldiers in general and considering himself part of them, so he used to share holidays, food, and training with them.[28][29][30]
Theal-Harafish were known for their support for Sultanal-Nasir Mahammad bin Qalawun in returning to power, and they led a major rebellion against EmirBaybars al-Jashnkir, who deposed al-Nasir Mahammad.Al-Harafish stoned him in the streets of Cairo. Al-Nasir Mahammad became famous for relying on al-Harafish so much that he was nicknamedal-Harfush.Al-Harafish also supported SultanAl-Nasir Hasan bin Qalawun to return to power.[28][29][30]
The naval fleet (الأسطول البحري) was made up of Egyptian leaders and soldiers only, it was originally established in theTulunid era and improved in theFatimid era.[31][32][33]
Every now and then, the entire Egyptian fleet would be filled with men and weapons of all kinds, and the Egyptian fleet, raising the yellow Egyptian flag, would approach the coasts of the European countries on theMediterranean, to display its strength and spread fear and panic in the hearts of the European population and the military garrisons in the southern European cities.[34][35]
This policy has left coastal countries such asCyprus,Rhodes, the Crusader state ofAcre, and others living in a state of constant fear of any Egyptian attack.Acre was conquered in 1291 after the Crusaders of Acre killed Egyptian merchants there, and Cypruswas conquered in 1426 after the Cypriots stole the goods of the Egyptian merchant Ahmad bin el-Humaim. Rhodeswas entered in 1444 after it carried out a raid on the Egyptian coast.[35][34]
EmirAlaa el-Din bin el-Emam brought about a qualitative shift in the Egyptian Navy during the Mamluk era. It is mentioned that he asked Sultanal-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri not to import ships from EuropeanVenetians and to suffice with importing wood that did not exist in Egypt, and to build Egyptian ships with pure Egyptian hands in the Egyptian port ofRosetta, so Emir Alaa el-Din built an Egyptian fleet from scratch and on the latest models. With thePortuguese threatening Egypt, Sultan Qansuh al-Ghuri commissioned Emir Alaa el-Din bin el-Emam with a major mission, which was to build an Egyptian naval arsenal capable of confronting the Portuguese. Alaa el-Din gave orders to build dozens ofgalleons, which were the most advanced warships of theMiddle Ages,[36] making Egypt's Portuguese rivals fearful of Egypt's new power.
Emir Alaa el-Din came up with a smart plan, which was not to build ships in the Red Sea ports because they were under surveillance by the Portuguese. He would build ships in Port Rosetta on the Mediterranean in complete secrecy, and he would make the ships easy to dismantle and assemble. He would dismantle the ships and cross them theNile Delta lands on large horse carriages, then reassembled them in the port of Suez and drove them himself to the port ofJeddah in the Hejaz, from which the Egyptian forces attacking the Portuguese would launch, this plan succeeded in surprising the Portuguese and the fleet was able to reachIndia without any confrontation with the Portuguese. In 1507, Prince Alaa el-Din bin el-Emam was appointed commander of the Egyptian fleet heading to the port of Jeddah to fight the Portuguese.[37] The ships built by him were able to defeat the Portuguese in the NavalBattle of Chaul.[38]
The Levantine Army or officially known asAl-Asakir al-Shamia (العساكر الشامية, lit. Levantine troops) was the army of the Levant. It was made up of Mamluks,Levantines,Bedouins,Kurds andTurkomen.[10][11][12] In addition to the soldiers of theHalqa who were present in the camps of the Levant and Hejaz to maintain security and stabilize the Sultanate's influence.[19][24]
Not much is known about the Levantine Army but it participated in theconquest of Malatya alongside the Egyptian Army under theNa'ib al-Sham (Viceroy of Syria),Tankiz and battles of theMongol invasions of the Levant and battles of theFall of Outremer.[39][40]
In the era of the Mamluk era, the Egyptian army was able to defeat the Mongols in the first fateful battle and stop the Mongol expansion after theBattle of Ain Jalut in 1260. It was also able to liberate the Levant and its coast from the Crusaders and annex it, with the conquest of southern and central Anatolia, including theArmenian Kingdom of Cilicia and theSultanate of Rum during the reign of Baybars. This is in addition to defeating the Mongols in many battles, includingfirst andsecond battles of Homs, theBattle of Marj al-Saffar, the Battle ofBirecik, the Battle ofHarran, and others. And the conquest of theKingdom of Makuria, the Hejaz andYemen more than once. Turning theHafsid dynasty ofIfriqiya into avassal state from 1311 to 1317 andconquering theKingdom of Cyprus in 1426, and ending theNizari Ismaili state in the Levant after assassinating many leaders of theSeljuk, Abbasid, Fatimid, and Crusaders states and attempting to assassinate the Sultan of Egypt,Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi.
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TheUnited States of America adopted theMamluk sword as the insignia of itsmarine forces.
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