The military history of theNorthern and Southern dynasties encompasses the period of Chinese military activity from 420 to 589. Officially starting withLiu Yu's usurpation of theJin throne and creation of hisLiu Song dynasty in 420, it ended in 589 with theSui dynasty's conquest ofChen dynasty and reunification ofChina proper. The first of theNorthern dynasties did not however begin in 420, but in 386 with the creation ofNorthern Wei. Thus there is some unofficial overlap with the era of theSixteen Kingdoms.

During theEastern Jin period, the army relied on a system of hereditary military households for recruitment. However, having lost the resources of the north, the Eastern Jin army attempted to bolster the number of military families in the south by incorporating convicts, vagrants, and aboriginals. This resulted in a general decline of social status and morale in the military. By the end of the dynasty, military men were regarded little better than government slaves. Terms of service were exceedingly harsh. One in three men from a military family was called upon for a term of service lasting from the age of 15 to their 60s. Essentially their entire life. Those who suffered debilitating injuries had to find a replacement from their family to procure release. Desertion was rampant and exit from the military household system a much sought after reward. By the sixth century the system of hereditary military households had collapsed.^[1]

During theLiu Song dynasty, voluntary recruits began to supplant the defunct military caste system. Many of these soldiers were former members of the previous system who had been freed, and had chosen to re-enlist for better terms, or because they could find no better employment. In practice, many of the military communities which had sprung up during the era of hereditary troops stayed together, and provided the basis for recruitment for the next dynasty.^[2] By theLiang andChen dynasties, voluntary recruits had become the dominant component of the military.^[2]

Commoners were sometimes called up during times of special need, however their service was generally relegated to labor or logistical duties. Military commanders of the time had little faith in their fighting ability.^[2]

AfterNorthern Wei shifted its capital toLuoyang, the lower classXianbei were registered as "garrison households". These functioned similarly to the southern hereditary military households and were used for frontier garrison posts. They were excluded from the formal ranking system.^[3] After the collapse of Northern Wei, the Eastern Wei regime absorbed the greater portion of North Asian warriors and preferred to deploy them over the Han Chinese. The Western regime lacked the manpower to forego Han Chinese recruits and made significant use of them in their campaigns.^[4]

In 550,Western Wei created the Twenty-four Armies, the predecessor of thefubing system, which formed the basis of military recruitment in theSui dynasty and earlyTang dynasty.^[5]

The primary significance of the Twenty-four Armies was thatYuwen Tai had managed to bolster his forces to a size far beyond what he originally started with. From 50,000 men in 550, the Twenty-four Armies had doubled in size by 570. It's not certain how this happened and the specifics are still a source of contention. The general view is that to create the Twenty-four Armies, the Western Wei government implemented a system of mass recruitment. However, unlike the conscription of theHan dynasty, this time the government provided new incentives by removing the names of recruits from the household registers. This meant that they were effectively free from normal tax and labor obligations. It was said that "after this half the Chinese became soldiers".^[6]

The utilization of Chinese troops eventually led to the triumph ofNorthern Zhou overNorthern Qi. Despite having a larger population base, the eastern Xianbei elite hailed from the northern garrisons which opposed sinicizing policies at the capital. They treated the Chinese with disdain and distrust, refusing to incorporate them into their military structure. The Chinese population reciprocated this sentiment and did little to help their overlords in times of need. In the west, the Xianbei had no choice but to rely upon not just the Chinese, but also theQiang, for they lacked the numbers to stand up to their eastern counterpart. The result was a new hybridized northwestern aristocracy of Xianbei, Chinese, and Qiang descent that gave birth to theSui andTang dynasties.^[7]

During theNorthern and Southern dynasties period (420–589), a style of armour called "cord and plaque" became popular, as did shields and long swords. "Cord and plaque" armour consisted of double breast plates in the front and back held in position by two shoulder straps and waist cords, in conjunction with the usual lamellar armour. "Cord and plaque" wearing figurines are also often depicted holding an oval or rectangular shield and a long sword.^[8] Types of armour had also apparently become distinct enough for there to be separate categories for light and heavy armour.^[9]

In the 6th century, Qimu Huaiwen introduced toNorthern Qi the process of 'co-fusion' steelmaking, which used metals of different carbon contents to create steel. Apparently sabers made using this method were capable of penetrating 30 armour lamellae. It's not clear if the armour was of iron or leather.

Huaiwen made sabres [dao 刀] of 'overnight iron' [su tie 宿鐵]. His method was to anneal [shao 燒] powdered cast iron [sheng tie jing 生鐵精] with layers of soft [iron] blanks [ding 鋌, presumably thin plates]. After several days the result is steel [gang 剛]. Soft iron was used for the spine of the sabre, He washed it in the urine of the Five Sacrificial Animals and quench-hardened it in the fat of the Five Sacrificial Animals: [Such a sabre] could penetrate thirty armour lamellae [zha 札]. The 'overnight soft blanks' [Su rou ting 宿柔鋌] cast today [in the Sui period?] by the metallurgists of Xiangguo (襄國) represent a vestige of [Qiwu Huaiwen's] technique. The sabres which they make are still extremely sharp, but they cannot penetrate thirty lamellae.^[10]

TheNorthern Wei employed the "iron-clad" Erzhu tribe who fought as armoured cavalry.^[8]

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  Soldiers of the Northern dynasties
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  Soldiers of the Northern dynasties
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  Northern dynasties shieldbearer
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  A soldier of the Northern dynasties
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  Northern Qi soldier
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  Northern Qi soldier
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  Northern Wei cavalry

Northern Wei, a successor state ofDai, was the first of theNorthern and Southern dynasties. It was founded byTuoba Gui, posthumouslyEmperor Daowu of Northern Wei, in 386.^[11]

From 388–9, he established dominion over theKumoxi, Jieru, and Tutulin in the east. From 390–1, he defeated the Gaoju, Yuange, Helan, Gexi, Getulin, Chinu, andChufu north of theYellow River. From 391–2, he defeated theXiongnu south of the Yellow River.^[12]

In the summer of 395, the heir apparent ofLater Yan,Murong Bao, attacked Northern Wei. Tuoba Gui chose not to confront him head on and fled west across the Yellow River, leaving the east undefended. When Murong Bao reached the east bank of the Yellow River, a series of protracted skirmished occurred, lasting until winter. At that point Murong Bao started to retreat, but Tuoba Gui overtook him with a column of cavalry at Shenhe Slope, northwest of modernHoringer. The entire Yan army was taken by surprise and routed on 8 December 395. Murong Chui led a new invasion into Later Yan territory in 396 and defeated an army nearPingcheng, but the offensive came to an abrupt halt when he grew ill and died. The momentum reversed and Yan armies capturedBing Province in the fall,Zhongshan in 397, andYe city in 398.^[13]

Tuoba Gui died in 409 and was succeeded by his son,Tuoba Si, posthumouslyEmperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei. Tuoba Si was heavily involved in Chinese poetry and literature and lacked the martial drive of his predecessor. Under his reign, there were two campaigns against theRouran to the north.^[14]

Tuoba Si died in 423 and was succeeded by his sonTuoba Tao, posthumouslyEmperor Taiwu of Northern Wei. Tuoba Tao was the polar opposite of his father. According toSima Guang, the heir of Tuoba Si was courageous and stalwart, often leading the charge in assaulting heavily defended cities, and acted indifferently towards the sight of death. In 426 he attacked the kingdom ofXia, takingChang'an andTongwancheng in 427. However Chang'an was retaken the next year. In 430 Northern Wei tookLuoyang from theLiu Song dynasty, conqueredNorthern Yan in 436, andNorthern Liang in 439. Thus ended theSixteen Kingdoms.^[14]

After conquering Northern Liang, Tuoba Tao crushed the rebellion of Ge Wu inGuanzhong and at the suggestion ofCui Hao, instigated proscription campaigns againstBuddhism. In 449, he crushed theRouran in battle and retaliated against a Liu Song invasion with his punitive expedition, reaching as far asGuabu (southeast ofLuhe,Jiangsu).^[15] He was killed in 452 by a eunuch,Zong Ai, who was killed byLu Li and others. They installedTuoba Jun, posthumouslyEmperor Wencheng of Northern Wei.^[16]

In 465,Tuoba Jun died and was succeeded by Tuoba Hong, posthumouslyEmperor Xianwen of Northern Wei. Under his reign, Northern Wei invaded theLiu Song dynasty andQingzhou andJizhou (冀州) (northJiangsu).^[15]

In 471, Tuoba Hong abdicated in favor of Yuan Hong, posthumouslyEmperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei.^[15] Hong's reign saw increasing sinicization at the court. In 494, Hong secretly moved the court toLuoyang under the disguise of a campaign. In 495, he banned theXianbei language at court. Non-Chinese languages were forbidden for all officials under the age of 30 and Xianbei surnames were replaced with Chinese names: Tuoba became Yuan. Xianbei clothing was also forbidden. Xianbei ranks were subsumed under the Chinese ones, and all Xianbei families were ranked using the new system. In 496, Xianbei nobles and generals rebelled in the north but were defeated. Even Hong's own son opposed the new policies, for which he was forced to commit suicide.^[17]

In 499, Tuoba Hong died and was succeeded by Yuan Ke, posthumouslyEmperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei.^[18] Under Yuan Ke, Northern Wei invaded theLiang dynasty and conqueredYiyangin 504 andChouchi in 506.^[18][19] They were however defeated at Zhongli (northeast ofFengyang,Anhui).^[18] A Liang counterattack saw the loss ofQushan (southwest ofLianyungang,Jiangsu) in 512.^[20]

in 515, Yuan Ke died and was succeeded by Yuan Xu, posthumouslyEmperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei.

In 523, drought and famine afflicted the northern frontier. Garrison commanders refused to distribute rations, causing theSix Frontier Towns to rebel underPoliuhan Baling. He was soon defeated with the aid of theRouran khanYujiulü Anagui, but northern refugees enteredHubei and also rebelled underDu Luozhou andGe Rong.^[20]

In 528, Yuan Xu was poisoned byher mother and died.Erzhu Rong, aJie general, took control of the capital and killed the empress and her son,Yuan Zhao. He enthroned Yuan Ziyou, posthumouslyEmperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei. Then with only 7,000 cavalry, Erzhu defeated Ge Rong's rebels. He enlisted the surrendered into his army, becoming the de facto ruler of Northern Wei. His victory was short lived, and Yuan Ziyou killed him in an ambush in 530. Erzhu Rong's heir,Erzhu Zhao, retaliated by sacking the capital and killing the emperor, replacing him withYuan Ye. Erzhu Zhao failed to command his predecessor's former troops and they defected toGao Huan.^[21]

In 531, Gao Huan established an independent regime inHebei. Being a Chinese raised in the Xianbei culture, he commanded not only the loyalty of Xianbei frontiersmen, but also that of the Han Chinese. With his supporters, Gao decisively defeated Erzhu Zhao in late spring of 532. He enthroned Yuan Xiu, posthumouslyEmperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei.^[22]

In 534, Yuan Xiu fled toChang'an under the regime ofYuwen Tai. In response, Gao Huan evicted Luoyang of its entire population and moved them toYe city.Yuan Shanjian, posthumouslyEmperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei, was enthroned under the eastern regime.^[23]

In 535, Yuan Xiu was killed by Yuwen Tai, who replaced him with Yuan Baoju, posthumouslyEmperor Wen of Western Wei. Thus ended theNorthern Wei.^[24]

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  Northern Wei cavalry
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  Northern Wei cavalry
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  Northern Wei cavalry
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  Northern Wei cavalry
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  Northern Wei cavalry
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  Northern Wei cavalry
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  Western Wei horse rider (possibly flag bearer or messenger)

In 537,Gao Huan launched a three pronged attacked onWestern Wei. When one column was crushed by a concentration of 6,000 cavalry underYuwen Tai, Gao retreated. Gao made a second attempt with a force of 100,000. The resultingBattle of Shayuan on 19 November saw Gao's entire force defeated in a surprise ambush by 7,000 heavy cavalry. The eastern army lost more than half its men.^[24]

In 538, Western Wei attackedLuoyang but was defeated.^[25]

In 542, Gao Huan tried to take the fortress of Yubi, which blocked his way intoGuanzhong. After a nine-day siege, he withdrew due to a snowstorm.^[25]

In 543, Yuwent Tai tried to take Luoyang again and failed.^[25]

In 546, Gao Huan tried to take Yubi again. He failed and died a few weeks later.

Gao’s men began by building an earthen mound to overlook the south wall of the fortress, but the defenders were able to counter by adding to the height of their towers. The attackers then tried tunnelling, but the defenders intercepted the tunnels by digging a deep trench inside and parallel to the south wall. When the attackers tried to weaken the wall with a sort of battering ram, the defenders lowered a cloth screen from the top of thewall to soften its impact. Gao Huan’s men eventually succeeded in undermining the wall and causing a small section to collapse, but the Western Wei defenders quickly filled the gap with a makeshift palisade. After spending thousands of lives to no avail, Gao abandoned the siege and withdrew to Taiyuan. He died only a few weeks later.^[26]

In 550,Gao Yang replaced the Eastern Wei with his own dynasty,Northern Qi.^[24]

Western Wei invaded theLiang dynasty in 553 and conquered theSichuan region. They killedEmperor Yuan of Liang the next year.^[27]

In 556, Yuwen Tai died.^[27]

In 557,Yuwen Hu replacedWestern Wei withNorthern Zhou.^[27]

Northern Qi was founded in 550 by Gao Yang, posthumouslyEmperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi.^[24]

In 553, theRouran submitted to Northern Qi after being defeated by theGöktürks.^[27]

In 556, Northern Qi attackedJiankang but was repelled.^[27]

In 559, Gao Yang died and was succeeded by Gao Yin, posthumouslyEmperor Fei of Northern Qi.^[27]

In 560, Gao Yin was deposed by Gao Yan, posthumouslyEmperor Xiaozhao of Northern Qi.^[27]

In 561, Gao Yan died and was succeeded by Gao Zhan, posthumouslyEmperor Wucheng of Northern Qi.^[27]

In 565, Northern Qi invadedNorthern Zhou but was repelled. Gao Zhan abdicated toGao Wei.^[27]

In 573, theChen dynasty invaded and conquered theHuai River valley.^[28]

In 575, Northern Zhou mobilized 170,000 men for an attack onLuoyang. After initial success, their emperor fell ill and were forced to retreat.^[28]

On 10 November 576, Northern Zhou struck atPingyang with an army of 145,000. With 60,000, the emperor took the city. As Gao Wei approached Pingyang, the enemies retreated with only 10,000 remaining in the city. On 10 January, 577, Northern Zhou returned with 80,000 men deployed in battle formation covering a wide perimeter. Gao Wei decided to engage the enemy army. When his left wing showed signs of collapsing, he fled, demoralizing his army and causing it to collapse. The Zhou army continued to advance, reachingTaiyuan on 17 January. On the 20th, 40,000 troops sallied out and were defeated. While they were retreating back into the city, the Zhou army scaled the walls. A Qi counterattack that night pushed back the invaders. On 21 January, the Zhou army breached the eastern gate and took the city. On 22 February 577,Ye city fell the Zhou. Gao Wei was captured and killed in 578.^[29]

Northern Qi hunting scene

Northern Qi hunting scene

Northern Zhou was founded byYuwen Hu in 557. However Yuwen Hu never became emperor, instead placing Yuwen Jue on the throne, posthumouslyEmperor Xiaomin of Northern Zhou. Yuwen Jue tried to size power from Yuwen Hu, so Yuwen Hu had him killed and replaced with Yuwen Yu, posthumouslyEmperor Ming of Northern Zhou.^[27]

In 560, Yuwen Hu killed Yuwen Yu and replaced him with Yuwen Yong, posthumouslyEmperor Wu of Northern Zhou.^[27]

In 561, theChen dynasty invaded, seizing NorthHubei.^[27]

In 565, an attack onNorthern Qi was repelled.^[28]

In 572, Yuwen Yong killed Yuwen Hu and seized complete power over the dynasty.^[28]

On 10 November 576, Northern Zhou struck atPingyang with an army 145,000. With 60,000, the emperor took the city. As Gao Wei approached Pingyang, the enemies retreated with only 10,000 remaining in the city. On 10 January, 577, Northern Zhou returned with 80,000 men deployed in battle formation covering a wide perimeter. Gao Wei decided to engage the enemy army. When his left wing showed signs of collapsing, he fled, demoralizing his army and causing it to collapse. The Zhou army continued to advance, reachingTaiyuan on 17 January. On the 20th, 40,000 troops sallied out and were defeated. While they were retreating back into the city, the Zhou army scaled the walls. A Qi counterattack that night pushed back the invaders. On 21 January, the Zhou army breached the eastern gate and took the city. On 22 February 577,Ye city fell the Zhou. Gao Wei was captured and killed in 578.^[29]

In 578, Yuwen Yong died as he was preparing to lead an expedition against theGöktürks. He was succeeded by Yuwen Yun, posthumouslyEmperor Xuan of Northern Zhou.^[28]

In 579, Yuwen Yun abdicated to Yuwen Chan, posthumouslyEmperor Jing of Northern Zhou. He was only six years old at the time and real power resided inYang Jian.^[28]

In 580, Northern Zhou seized territory north of theChangjiang.Yuchi Jiong andWang Qian rebelled but were defeated.^[28]

On 4 March 581, Yang Jian deposed Yuwen Chan, and declared himself Emperor of theSui dynasty.^[30]

In 587, the Sui dynasty annexedWestern Liang and invaded theChen dynasty with 518,000 men the following year. The Sui army tookJiankang in 589, annexing Chen and ending the era of Northern and Southern dynasties.^[30]

In 420,Liu Yu, posthumouslyEmperor Wu of Liu Song, usurped the Jin throne and replaced it with his ownLiu Song dynasty.^[31] Liu Yu was originally the son of a low ranking official and his family was described as "poor".^[32] During the waning years of the Jin dynasty, Liu Yu proved himself to be an exceptionally capable commander, gifted in the use of the glaive, and worked his way up the military hierarchy. By the year 420, Liu Yu had become the dominant military power in the empire.^[33]

In 422, Liu Yu died and was succeeded by his son Liu Yifu, posthumouslyEmperor Shao of Liu Song.^[33]

In 424, Liu Yifu was deposed and succeeded by Liu Yilong, posthumouslyEmperor Wen of Liu Song.^[33]

In 430,Northern Wei tookLuoyang from Song.^[34]

In 434, Song retookHanzhong fromChouchi.^[34]

In 442,Xiao Daocheng attacked theNanman north of theHan River.^[35]

In 449,Shen Qingzhi attacked theNanman north of theHan River, taking 28,000 prisoners.^[1]

In 450, Song invaded Northern Wei but was defeated.^[15]

In 453, Liu Yilong was murdered byLiu Shao, who was then killed by Liu Jun, posthumouslyEmperor Xiaowu of Liu Song. Liu Jun spent his reign killing his brothers and checking the power of his kin.^[36]

In 464, Liu Jun died, sparking a civil war.^[36]

In 466, Liu Yu, posthumouslyEmperor Ming of Liu Song, defeated the contenders and ended the civil war.^[36]

In 467, Northern Wei invaded, taking territory north and west of theHuai River.^[15]

In 469, Northern Wei tookQingzhou andJizhou (冀州) (northJiangsu)^[15]

In 472, Liu Yu died and was succeeded by Liu Yu, posthumouslyEmperor Houfei of Liu Song. The former emperor's brother rebelled but was defeated by the generalXiao Daocheng.^[36]

In 477, Liu Yu was killed by Xiao Daocheng and was succeeded by Liu Zhun, posthumouslyEmperor Shun of Liu Song. Xiao Daocheng went to war with provincial governorShen Youzhi, eventually winning the next year.^[36]

In 479, Xiao Daocheng deposed the last emperor of Liu Song and took the title for himself, as Emperor ofSouthern Qi, posthumouslyEmperor Gao of Southern Qi.^[18]

Liu Song

Liu Yu 刘裕 (363–422) Wudi (r. 420–422)1 Liu Yifu 刘义符 (406–424) Shao (r. 423–424)2 Liu Yilong 刘义隆 (407–453) Wen (r. 424–453)3 Liu Yikang 劉義康 (409–451) Liu Shao 刘劭 426–453; r. 4534 Liu Jun (430–464) Xiaowu (r. 453–464)5 Liu Jun 劉濬 (429–453) Prince Shixing Liu Yu 刘彧 (439–472) Ming (r. 465–472)7 Liu Xiufan 刘休范 (448–474) Liu Ziye 刘子业 (449–466) Qianfei (r. 464–466)6 Liu Zixun (劉子勛) (456–466; r. 466) Liu Yu (劉昱) (463–477) Houfei (r. 472–477)8 Liu Zhun (劉準) (469–479) Shun (r. 477–479)9

TheSouthern Qi dynasty founded byXiao Daocheng in 479 lasted a mere 22 years. Xiao Daocheng died in 482 and was succeeded by Xiao Ze, posthumouslyEmperor Wu of Southern Qi. Xiao Ze died in 482 and was succeeded byXiao Zhaoye. Xiao Luan assassinated him in 494 and became emperor, posthumouslyEmperor Ming of Southern Qi. When Xiao Luan died in 498 andXiao Baojuan came to the throne, a series of plots and revolts by regional governors occurred. In 500, an imperial cousin namedXiao Yan raised 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry in revolt.Northern Wei also invaded at this point and took territory south of theHuai River. In 501, Xiao Baojuan's subordinates killed him and surrenderedJiankang to Xiao Yan. In 502, Xiao Yan proclaimed himself Emperor of theLiang dynasty, posthumouslyEmperor Wu of Liang.^[36]

TheLiang dynasty founded byXiao Yan in 502 survived for 55 years, with the founder ruling for 48 of those years. To fund the state treasury, the emperor donated himself to aBuddhist monastery on three occasions and forced his ministers to pay a ransom for him each time.

In 504,Northern Wei conqueredYiyang.^[18]

In 507, a Northern Wei army was defeated atZhongli (northeast ofFengyang,Anhui).^[18]

In 518, Liang retookQushan (southwest ofLianyungang,Jiangsu).^[20]

In 528, Liang briefly occupiedLuoyang before being expelled.^[37]

In 541,Lý Bôn rebelled and attacked Liang officials.^[38]

In 544, Lý Bôn established theEarly Lý dynasty and becameLý Nam Đế (Southern Emperor).^[38]

In 545,Chen Baxian drove Lý Nam Đế into the mountains, where he is eventually killed, but resistance continued underLý Thiên Bảo.^[38]

In 548, the frontier generalHou Jing rebelled, tookJiankang, and proclaimed himself emperor in 551.^[24]

In 549,Hou Jing seized Taicheng.Eastern Wei took territory south of theHuai River. Xiao Yan died and was succeeded by Xiao Gang, posthumouslyEmperor Jianwen of Liang.^[24]

In 551, Hou Jing killed Xiao Gang and declared himself emperor.^[24]

In 552,Wang Sengbian andChen Baxian retookJiankang while Hou Jing was killed.Xiao Ji declared himself emperor inJiangling but was killed the next year. Xiao Yi became emperor, posthumouslyEmperor Yuan of Liang.^[27]

In 553,Western Wei conqueredSichuan.^[27]

In 554, Xiao Yi was captured by Western Wei and killed.^[27]

In 555, Wang Sengbian set upXiao Yuanming as emperor butChen Baxian killed Sengbian and set up Xiao Fangzhi, posthumouslyEmperor Jing of Liang.^[27]

In 556,Northern Qi attacked Jiankang but was repelled.^[27]

In 557, Chen Baxian replaced the Liang dynasty with his ownChen dynasty^[27]

TheChen dynasty was founded byChen Baxian, posthumouslyEmperor Wen of Chen, in 557. It was immediately invaded in 558 byWestern Liang, which tookChangsha andWuling^[27] The next year, Chen Baxian died and was succeeded by Chen Qian, posthumouslyEmperor Wen of Chen.^[27]

In 561, Chen attackedNorthern Zhou and conqueredHubei.^[27]

In 566, Chen Qian died and was succeeded by Chen Bozong, posthumouslyEmperor Fei of Chen.^[28]

In 568, Chen Bozong was deposed and succeeded by Chen Xu, posthumouslyEmperor Xuan of Chen.^[28]

In 573, Chen invadedNorthern Qi, conquering theHuai River valley and taking territory north of theChangjiang.^[28]

In 575, a Northern Qi army was defeated atLüliang.^[28]

In 578, a Chen invasion of Northern Qi was defeated atPengcheng.^[28]

In 580,Northern Zhou seized territory north of the Changjiang.^[28]

In 582, Chen Xu died and was succeeded byChen Shubao.^[30]

In 588, theSui dynasty invaded and annexed the Chen dynasty the following year.^[30]

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• Northern and Southern dynasties
• States and territories established in the 420s
• States and territories disestablished in the 580s
• Dynasties of China
• 5th century in China
• 6th century in China
• Medieval Asia
• 420 establishments
• 5th-century establishments in China
• 589 disestablishments
• 6th-century disestablishments in China

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