Themilitary history of Iran has been relatively well-documented, withthousands of years' worth of recorded history. Largely credited to its historically unchanged geographical and geopolitical condition, the modern-dayIslamic Republic of Iran (historically known asPersia) has had a long and checkered military culture and history; ranging from triumphant and unchallenged ancient military supremacy, affording effectivesuperpower status for its time; to a series of near-catastrophic defeats (beginning with the destruction ofElam), most notably including theancient Greek kingdom ofMacedon as well as theAsiatic nomadic tribes at the northeastern boundary of the lands traditionally home to theIranian peoples.

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  A golden chariot made duringAchaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE).
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  The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent.
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  Right: Persian soldier. Left: Median soldier.
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  Persian warriors.

The Achaemenid Empire (559–330 BCE) was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Greater Iran. The empire possessed a "national army" of roughly 120.000–150.000 troops, plus several tens of thousands of troops from their allies.

The Persian army was divided into regiments of a thousand each, calledhazarabam.Ten hazarabams formed ahaivarabam, or division. The best known haivarabam were theImmortals, the King's personal guard division. The smallest unit was the ten-mandathaba. Ten dathabas formed the hundred mansataba.

The royal army used a system of coloruniforms to identify different units. A large variety of colors were used, some of the most common being yellow, purple, and blue. However, this system was probably limited to native Persian troops and was not used for their numerous allies.

The usual tactic employed by the Persians in the early period of the empire, was to form ashield wall that archers could fire over. These troops (calledsparabara, or shield-bearers) were equipped with a large rectangular wicker shield called a spara, and armed with a short spear, measuring around six feet long.

Though equipped and trained to conductshock action (hand-to-hand combat with spears, axes and swords), this was a secondary capability and the Persians preferred to maintain their distance from the enemy in order to defeat him with superior missile-power. Thebow was the preferred missile-weapon of the Persians. At maximum rate of fire a sparabara haivarabam of 10,000 men could launch approximately 100,000 arrows in a single minute and maintain this rate for a number of minutes. Typically the Persiancavalry would open the battle by harassing the enemy with hit and run attacks – shooting arrows and throwing small javelins – while the Persian sparabara formed up their battle-array. Then the Persian cavalry would move aside and attempt to harass the flanks of the enemy. Defending against the Persian cavalry required the enemy infantry to congregate in dense static formations, which were ideal targets for the Persian archers. Even heavily armoured infantry like the Greek hoplites would suffer heavy casualties in such conditions. Enemy infantry formations that scattered to reduce casualties from the dense volleys of Persian arrows, were exposed to a close-in shock assault by the Persian cavalry. Torn by the dilemma between exposure to a gradual attrition by the arrows or to being overwhelmed by a cavalry charge on their flanks, most armies faced by the Persians succumbed.

The major weaknesses of the typical Persian tactics were that proper application of these tactics required:a) A wide battlefield composed of fairly flat and expansive terrain that would not hinder the rapid movement of massed horses and where the cavalry could conduct proper flanking maneuvers.b) Good coordination between the cavalry, infantry, and missile units.c) An enemy inferior in mobility.d) An enemy lacking a combined-arms military.

Most Persian failures can be attributed to one or more of these requirements not being met. Thus, the Scythians evaded the Persian army time and again because they were all mounted and conducted only hit-and-run raids on the Persians; at Marathon the Athenians deployed on a rocky mountainous slope and only descended to the plain after the Persian cavalry had reboarded their transport-ships – charging through the arrow-shower to conduct close-combat with spears and swords – a form of combat for which the Athenians were better equipped and better trained; at Thermopylae the Greek army deliberately deployed in a location that negated the Persians ability to use cavalry and missile-power, again forcing them to fight only head-on in close-combat and was forced to retreat only after the Persians were informed of a bypass that enabled them to circumvent this defensive position to defeat the Spartans; at Plataea the Persian attack was poorly coordinated and defeated piecemeal; Alexander the Great's Macedonian army that invaded the Persian empire was composed of a variety of infantry and cavalry types (combined-arms approach) that enabled it, together with Alexander's superior tactical generalship, to negate the Persian capabilities and, once again, force them to fight close-combat.

The Seleucid Empire was aHellenistic successor state ofAlexander the Great's dominion, including centralAnatolia, theLevant,Mesopotamia,Persia,Turkmenistan,Pamir and theIndus valley.

Parthia was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran, but at the height of its power, the Parthian dynasty covered all ofIran proper, as well asArmenia,Azerbaijan,Iraq,Georgia, easternTurkey, easternSyria,Turkmenistan,Afghanistan,Tajikistan,Pakistan,Kuwait, thePersian Gulf, the coast ofSaudi Arabia,Bahrain,Qatar,Lebanon,Israel,Palestine and theUAE.^[1]

The Parthian empire was led by the Arsacid dynasty, led by theParni, a confederation ofScythians which reunited and ruled over theIranian plateau, after defeating and disposing the HellenisticSeleucid Empire, beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlledMesopotamia between 150 BCE and 224 CE. It was the third native dynasty of ancient Iran (after theMedian and theAchaemenid dynasties). Parthia was the arch-enemy of theRoman Empire for nearly three centuries.^[2]

After theScythian-Parninomads had settled in Parthia and built a small independent kingdom, they rose to power under kingMithridates the Great (171–138 BCE).^[3] The power of the early Parthian empire seems to have been overestimated by some ancient historians, who could not clearly separate the powerful later empire from its more humble obscure origins. The end of this long-lived empire came in 224 AD, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassals, thePersians of theSassanid dynasty.

The birth of the Sassanid army dates back to the rise ofArdashir I (r. 226–241), the founder of theSasanian dynasty, to the throne. Ardashir aimed at the revival of thePersian Empire, and to further this aim, he reformed the military by forming a standing army which was under his personal command and whose officers were separate fromsatraps, local princes and nobility. He restored theAchaemenid military organizations, retained theParthian cavalry model, and employed new types of armour and siege warfare techniques. This was the beginning for a military system which served him and his successors for over 400 years, during which the Sassanid Empire was, along with theRoman Empire and later theEast Roman Empire, one of the two superpowers oflate antiquity in Western Eurasia. The Sassanid army protectedEranshahr ("the realm of Iran") from the East against the incursions of central Asiatic nomads like theHephthalites,Turks, while in the west it was engaged in a recurrent struggle against its rival, the Roman Empire and later theByzantine Empire, setting on forth the conflict that had started since the time of their predecessors, the Parthians, and would end after around 720 years, making it the longest conflict in human history.^[4][5]

The Islamic conquest ofPersia (633–656) led to the end of theSassanid Empire and the eventual decline of theZoroastrian religion inPersia. However, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the newIslamic polity.

MostMuslim historians have long offered the idea that Persia, on the verge of the Arab invasion, was a society in decline and decay and thus it embraced the invading Arab armies with open arms. This view is not widely accepted however. Some authors have for example used mostly Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims, Iranians in fact fought long and hard against the invading Arabs."^[6] This view further more holds that once politically conquered, the Persians began engaging in a culture war of resistance and succeeded in forcing their own ways on the victorious Arabs.^[7][8]

Although nominally subject to theAbbasid Caliphate inBaghdad, the Tahirid rulers were effectively independent. The dynasty was founded byTahir ibn Husayn, a leading general in the service of the Abbasid caliphal-Ma'mun. Tahir's military victories were rewarded with the gift of lands in the east of Persia, which were subsequently extended by his successors as far as the borders of India.

The Tahirid dynasty is considered to be the first independent dynasty from the Abbasid Caliphate established in Khorasan. They were overthrown by theSaffarid dynasty, who annexed Khorasan to their own empire in eastern Persia.

The Alavids or Alavians were aShiaemirate based inMazandaran ofIran. They were descendants of the second Shi'aImam (ImamHasan ibn Ali) and brought Islam to the southCaspian Sea region of Iran. Their reign was ended when they were defeated by theSamanid Empire in 928 AD. After their defeat some of the soldiers and generals of the Alavids joined the Samanid dynasty.Mardavij the son of Ziar was one of the generals that joined the Samanids. He later founded theZiyarid dynasty.Ali, Hassan and Ahmad the sons of Buye [bu:je] (that were founders of theBuyid (Buwayhid) dynasty) were also among generals of the Alavid dynasty who joined the Samanid army.

The Saffarid dynasty ruled a short-lived empire inSistan, which is a historical region now in southeasternIran and southwesternAfghanistan. Their rule was between 861 and 1003.^[9]

The Saffarid capital wasZaranj (now in Afghanistan). The dynasty was founded by – and took its name from –Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar, a man of humble origins who rose from an obscure beginning as a coppersmith (saffar) to become a warlord. He seized control of the Seistan region, conquering all of Afghanistan, modern-day eastern Iran, and parts ofPakistan. Using their capital (Zaranj) as base for an aggressive expansion eastwards and westwards, they overthrew theTahirid dynasty and annexedKhorasan in 873. By the time of Ya'qub's death, he had conqueredKabul Valley,Sindh,Tocharistan,Makran (Baluchistan),Kerman,Fars, Khorasan, and nearly reachingBaghdad but then suffered defeat.^[10]

History ofGreater Iran
Pre-Islamic BCE / BC Prehistory Kura–Araxes culture c. 3400 – c. 2000 Helmand culture/Jiroft culture 3300-2200 Proto-Elamite civilization 3200–2800 Elamite dynasties 2800–550 Lullubi/Zamua 3100-675 Marhaši 2550-2020 Bactria–Margiana Complex 2400–1700 Gutian Dynasty 2141-2050 Avestan period c. 1500 BCE – 500 BCE Kingdom of Mannai 10th–7th century Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Median Empire 728–550 Scythian Kingdom 652–625 Achaemenid Empire 550–330 Ancient kingdom of Armenia 331 BCE – 428 CE Seleucid Empire 330–150 Caucasian Iberia c. 302 BCE – 580 CE Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 250–125 Parthian Empire 248 BCE–224 CE Caucasian Albania 2nd century BCE – 8th century CE Roman Empire 27 BCE – 330 CE CE / AD Kushan Empire 30–275 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Afrighid dynasty 305–995 Hephthalite Empire 425–557 Kabul Shahi kingdom 565–879 Dabuyid dynasty 642–760 Bagratid Armenia 880s – 1045 Alania 8th/9th century – 1238 / 9 Kingdom of Georgia 1008–1490
Islamic Rashidun Caliphate 637–651 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Shirvanshah 799–1607 Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Dulafid dynasty 840–897 Zaydis of Tabaristan 864–928 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Samanid Empire 819–999 Sajid dynasty 889/90–929 Ziyarid dynasty 928–1043 Buyid dynasty 934–1055 Sallarid dynasty 941–1062 Ghaznavid Empire 975–1187 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Sultanate of Rum 1077–1307 Salghurids 1148–1282 Ilkhanate 1256–1353 Kart dynasty 1231–1389 Ottoman Empire 1299–1923 Muzaffarid dynasty 1314–1393 Chupanid dynasty 1337–1357 Jalairid Sultanate 1339–1432 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans 1407–1468 Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans 1378–1508 Safavid Empire 1501–1722 Mughal Empire 1526–1857 Hotak dynasty 1722–1729 Afsharid Iran 1736–1750 Zand dynasty 1750–1794 Durrani Empire 1794–1826 Qajar Iran 1794–1925
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The Saffarid empire did not last long after Ya'qub's death. His brother and successorAmr bin Laith was defeated in a battle with theSamanids in 900. Amr bin Laith was forced to surrender most of their territories to the new rulers. The Saffarids were subsequently confined to their heartland of Sistan, with their role reduced to that ofvassals of the Samanids and their successors.

The Samanids (819–999)^[11] were aPersian dynasty in Central Asia andGreater Khorasan, named after its founderSaman Khuda who converted toSunni Islam^[12] despite being fromZoroastrian theocratic nobility. It was among the first nativeIranian dynasties inGreater Iran and Central Asia after theArab conquest and the collapse of theSassanid Persian empire.

The Ziyarids, also spelled Zeyarids (زیاریان or آل زیار), were an Iranian dynasty that ruled in the Caspian sea provinces of Gorgan and Mazandaran from 930 to 1090 (also known asTabaristan). The founder of the dynasty wasMardavij (from 930 to 935), who took advantage of a rebellion in the Samanid army of Iran to seize power in northern Iran. He soon expanded his domains and captured the cities of Hamadan and Isfahan.

The Buyid dynasty^[13] were aShī‘ahPersian^[14][15] dynasty that originated fromDaylaman inGilan. They founded a confederation that controlled most of modern-dayIran andIraq in the 10th and 11th centuries.

The Ghaznavids were aMuslim dynasty ofTurkic slave origin^[16] which existed from 975 to 1187 and ruled much ofPersia,Transoxania, and the northern parts of theIndian subcontinent.^[17]

The dynasty was founded bySebuktigin upon his succession to rule of territories centered around the city ofGhazni from his father-in-law,Alp Tigin, a break-away ex-general of the Samanid sultans.^[18] Sebuktigin's son,Shah Mahmoud, expanded the empire in the region that stretched from theOxus river to theIndus Valley and theIndian Ocean; and in the west it reachedRey andHamadan. Under the reign ofMas'ud I it experienced major territorial losses. It lost its western territories to theSeljuqs in theBattle of Dandanaqan resulting in a restriction of its holdings to what is nowAfghanistan, as well asBalochistan and thePunjab. In 1151, Sultan Bahram Shah lost Ghazni toAla al-Din Husayn ofGhur and the capital was moved toLahore until its subsequent capture by theGhurids in 1186.

The Seljuqs were aTurco-Persian^[20][21]SunniMuslim dynasty that ruled parts ofCentral Asia and theMiddle East from the 11th to 14th centuries. They set up an empire, theGreat Seljuq Empire, which at its height stretched fromAnatolia throughPersia and which was the target of theFirst Crusade. The dynasty had its origins in theTurcoman tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning ofTurkic power in theMiddle East. After arriving inPersia, the Seljuqs adopted thePersian culture^[22] and are regarded as the cultural ancestors of theWestern Turks – the present-day inhabitants ofAzerbaijan,Turkey, andTurkmenistan.

The Khwarezmian dynasty, also known as Khwarezmids or Khwarezm Shahs was aPersianateSunniMuslim dynasty ofTurkic mamluk origin.^[23][24]

They ruledGreater Iran in theHigh Middle Ages, in the period of about 1077 to 1231, first asvassals of theSeljuqs^{[citation needed]},Kara-Khitan,^[25] and later as independent rulers, up until theMongol invasions of the 13th century.The dynasty was founded byAnush Tigin Gharchai, a former slave of the Seljuq sultans, who was appointed the governor ofKhwarezm. His son,Qutb ud-Dīn Muhammad I, became the first hereditaryShah ofKhwarezm.^[26]

The Ilkhanate was aMongolkhanate established inPersia in the 13th century, considered a part of theMongol Empire. The Ilkhanate was based, originally, onGenghis Khan's campaigns in theKhwarezmid Empire in 1219–1224, and founded by Genghis's grandson,Hulagu, in what territories which today comprise most ofIran,Iraq,Afghanistan,Turkmenistan,Armenia,Azerbaijan,Georgia,Turkey, and westernPakistan. The Ilkhanate initially embraced manyreligions, but was particularly sympathetic toBuddhism andChristianity, and sought aFranco-Mongol alliance with theCrusaders in order to conquerPalestine. Later Ilkhanate rulers, beginning withGhazan in 1295, embracedIslam.

The Jalayirids (آل جلایر) were aMongol descendant dynasty which ruled overIraq and westernPersia^[27] after the breakup of the MongolKhanate of Persia (orIlkhanate) in the 1330s.

The Jalayirid sultanate lasted about fifty years, until disrupted byTamerlane's conquests and the revolts of the "Black sheep Turks" orKara Koyunlu. After Tamerlane's death in 1405, there was a brief unsuccessful attempt to re-establish the Jalayirid sultanate and Jalayirid sultanate was ended by Kara Koyunlu in 1432.

The Timurids were aCentral AsianSunniMuslim dynasty of originallyTurko-Mongol descent whose empire included the whole of Central Asia,Iran, modernAfghanistan, as well as large parts of Pakistan, India,Mesopotamia,Anatolia and theCaucasus. It was founded by the militant conquerorTimur (Tamerlane) in the 14th century.

In the 16th century, Timurid princeBabur, the ruler ofFerghana, invaded India and founded theMughal Empire, which ruled most of theIndian subcontinent until its decline afterAurangzeb in the early 18th century, and was formally dissolved by theBritish Empire after theIndian Rebellion of 1857.

The Safavid rulers ofPersia, like theMamluks ofEgypt, viewed firearms with distaste, and at first made little attempt to adopt them into their armed forces. Like the Mamluks they were taught the error of their ways by the powerfulOttoman armies. Unlike the Mamluks they lived to apply the lessons they had learnt on the battlefield. In the course of the sixteenth century, but still more in the seventeenth, the shahs of Iran took steps to acquire handguns and artillery pieces and to re-equip their forces with them. Initially, the principal sources of these weapons appears to have beenVenice,Portugal, andEngland.

Despite their initial reluctance, the Persians very rapidly acquired the art of making and using handguns. A Venetian envoy, Vincenzo di Alessandri, in a report presented to theCouncil of Ten on 24 September 1572, observes:

"They used for arms, swords, lances, arquebuses, which all the soldiers carry and use; their arms are also superior and better tempered than those of any other nation. The barrels of the arquebuses are generally six spans long, and carry a ball little less than three ounces in weight. They use them with such facility that it does not hinder them drawing their bows nor handling their swords, keeping the latter hung at their saddle bows till occasion requires them. The arquebus is then put away behind the back so that one weapon does not impede the use of the other."

This picture of the Persian horseman, equipped for almost simultaneous use of the bow, sword, and firearm, aptly symbolized the dramatic and complexity of the scale of changes that the Persian Military was undergoing. While the use of personal firearms was becoming commonplace, the use of field artillery was limited and remained on the whole ineffective.

Shah Abbas (1587–1629) was instrumental in bringing about a 'modern' gunpowder era in the Persian army. Following the Ottoman Army model that had impressed him in combat the Shah set about to build his new army. He was much helped by two English brothers,Anthony andRobert Shirley, who went to Iran in 1598 with twenty-six followers and remained in the Persian service for a number of years. The brothers helped organize the army into an officer-paid and well-trained standing army similar to a European model. It was organized along three divisions:Ghilman ('crown servants or slaves' conscripted from hundreds of thousands of ethnicCircassians,Georgians, andArmenians), Tofongchis (musketeers), and Topchis (artillery-men)

Shah Abbas's new model army was massively successful and allowed him to re-unite parts ofGreater Iran and expand his nations territories at a time of great external pressure and conflict.

The Safavid era also saw the mass integration of hundreds of thousands of ethnic Caucasians, notablyCircassians,Georgians,Armenians, and otherpeoples of the Caucasus in Persian society, starting with the era ofShah Tahmasp I, and which would last all the way till theQajar era. Originally only deployed for being fierce warriors and having beautiful women, this policy was notably significantly expanded under Shah Abbas I, who would use them as a complete new layer in Persian society, most notably to crush the power of the feudalQizilbash. Under Abbas' own reign, some 200,000 Georgians, tens of thousands ofCircassians, and 300,000 Armenians were deported to Iran. Many of them were, as above mentioned, put in the ghilman corps, but the larger masses were deployed in the regular armies, the civil administration, royal household, but also as labourers, farmers, and craftsmen. Many notorious Iranian generals and commanders were of Caucasian ancestry. Many of their descendants linger forth in Iran as theIranian Georgians,Iranian Circassians, andIranian Armenians (see Peoples of the Caucasus in Iran), and many millions of Iranians are estimated to have Caucasian ancestry as a following of this.

Upon the fall of the Safavid dynastyPersia entered into a period of uncertainty. The previously highly organized military fragmented and the pieces were left for the following dynasties to collect.

Following the decline of theSafavid state a brilliant general by the name ofNader Shah took the reins of the country.This period and the centuries following it were characterised by the rise in Russian power to Iran's north.

Following Nader Shah, many of the other leaders of the Afsharid dynasty were weak and the state they had built quickly gave way to the Qajars. As the control of the country de-centralised with the collapse of Nader Shah's rule, many of the peripheral territories of the Empire gained independence and only paid token homage to the Persian State.One of the branches of service to benefit most from Nader's reforms was by far the artillery. During the reign of the Safavid dynasty gunpowder weapons were used to a relatively limited extent and were certainly not to be considered central to the Safavid military machine.^[28] Although most of Nader's military campaigns were conducted with an aggressive speed of advance which brought up difficulties in keeping up the heavy guns with the army's rapid marches, Nader placed great emphasis on enhancing his artillery units.

The main centres of Persian armament production wereAmol,Kermanshah,Isfahan,Merv. These military factories achieved high levels of production and managed to equip the army with good quality cannon. However mobile workshops allowed for Nader to maintain his strategic mobility whilst preserving versatility in the deployment of heavy siege cannon when required.

The second half of the 18th century saw a new dynasty take hold in Iran. The newQajar dynasty was founded on slaughter and plunder of Iranians, particularly Zoroasterian Iranians. The Qajars, under their dynasty founder,Agha Mohammad Khan plundered and slaughtered the aristocrats of the previous Zand dynasty. Following this, Agha Mohammad Khan was determined to regain all lost territories following the death of Nadir Shah. First on his was theCaucasus, and most notablyGeorgia. Iran had intermittently ruled most of theCaucasus since 1555, since the early days of the Safavid dynasty, but while Iran was in chaos and tumult, many of their subjects had declared themselves quasi-independent, or in the case of the Georgians, had plotted an alliance with theRussian Empire by theTreaty of Georgievsk. Agha Mohammad Khan, furious at his Georgian subjects, starting his expedition with 60,000 cavalry under his command, defeated the Russian garrisons stationed there and drove them back out of the entire Caucasus in several important battles, and completelysacked Tbilisi, and carried of some 15,000 captives back to Iran. Following the capture of Georgia, Agha Mohammad Khan was murdered by two of his servants who feared they would be executed. The rise of the Qajars was very closely timed withCatherine the Great's order to invade Iran once again. During thePersian expedition of 1796, Russian troops crossed theAras river and invaded parts ofAzarbaijan andGilan, while they also moved toLankaran with the aim of occupyingRasht again. His nephew and successor,Fath Ali Shah, after several successful campaigns of his own against theAfshars, with the help of Minister of WarMirza Assadolah Khan and MinisterAmir Kabir created a new strongNezam-e Jadid army, based on the latest European models, for the newly chosen Crown-PrinceAbbas Mirza.

This period marked a serious decline in Persia's power and thus its military prowess. From here onwards the Qajar dynasty would face great difficulty in its efforts, due to the international policies mapped out by some western great powers and notPersia herself. Persia's efforts would also be weakened due to continual economic, political, and military pressure from outside of the country (see theGreat Game), and social and political pressures from within would make matters worse.

With the consolidation of the Treaty of Georgievsk, Russia annexed eastern Georgia andDagestan in 1801, dethroning theBagrationi dynasty. In 1803, Fath Ali Shah was determined to get Georgia and Dagestan back, and fearing Russia would march on more south towards Persia and the Ottoman Empire too, declared war on Russia. While starting with the upper hand, Russians were ultimately victorious in theRusso-Persian War (1804–1813). From the beginning, Russian troops had a great advantage over the Persians as they possessed much modernartillery, the use of which had never sunk into the Persian army since theSafavid dynasty three centuries earlier. Nevertheless, the Persian army under the command ofAbbas Mirza managed to win several victories over the Russians. Iran's inability to develop modern artillery during the preceding, and the Qajar, dynasty resulted in the signing of theTreaty of Gulistan in 1813. This marked a turning point in the Qajar attitude towards the military.

Mining copper inAzerbaijan,Set Khan Astvatsatourian provided a catalyst for the reformation of the Persian military, as previously all large quantities of copper for cannon smelting had been imported from theOttoman Empire. Set Khan's development of domestic artillery production not only helped further the Azerbaijan-based military reform, but also contributed toAbbas Mirza's realization of the critical importance of the use of foreign techniques and military technology in the Persian military.^[29]Abbas Mirza sent a large number of Persians to England to study Western military technology and at the same time he invited British officers to Persia to train the Persian forces under his command.

The army's transformation was phenomenal as can be seen from theBattle of Erzeroum (1821) where the new army routed anOttoman army. This resulted in theTreaty of Erzurum whereby the Ottoman Empire acknowledged the existing frontier between the two empires. These efforts to continue theNezam-e Jadid modernisation program of the army through the training of officers in Europe continued until the end of the Qajar dynasty. With the exceptions of Russian and British militaries, the Qajar army of the time was unquestionably the most powerful in the region.

With his new army, Abbas Mirzainvaded Russia in 1826. While in the first year of the war Persia managed to regain almost all lost territories, reaching almost Georgia andDagestan too, the Persian army ultimately proved no match for the significantly larger and equally capable Russian army. The followingTreaty of Turkmenchay in 1828 crippled Persia through the ceding of much of Persia's northern territories and the payment of a colossal war indemnity. The scale of the damage done to Persia through the treaty was so severe that The Persian Army and state would not regain its former strength till the rise and creation of theSoviet Union and the latter's cancellation of the economic elements of the treaty as 'tsarist imperialistic policies'. After these periods of Russo-Persian Wars, Russian influence in Persia rose significantly too.

The reigns of bothMohammad Shah andNasser al-Din Shah also saw attempts by Persia to bring the city ofHerat, occupied by theAfghans, again under Persian rule. In this, though the Afghans were no match for the Persian Army, the Persians were not successful, this time because of British intervention as part of theGreat Game(See papers by Waibel and Esandari Qajar within the Qajar Studies source). Russia backed the Persian attacks, using Persia as a 'cat's paw' for expansion of its own interests. Britain feared the seizure of Herat would leave a route to attack British India controlled by a power friendly to Russia, and threatened Persia with closure of the trade of the Persian Gulf. When Persia abandoned its designs on Herat, the British no longer felt India was threatened. This, combined with growing Persian fears about Russian designs on their own country, led to the later period of Anglo-Persian military co-operation.

Ultimately, under the Qajars, Persia was shaped into its modern form. Initially, under the reign ofAgha Mohammad Khan Persia won back many of its lost territories, notably in the Caucasus, only to be lost again through a series of bitter wars with Russia. In the west the Qajars effectively stopped encroachment of their Ottoman arch-rival in theOttoman–Persian War (1821–1823) and in the east the situation remained fluid.

Foreign powers had an increasing influence over time including on the Qajar army.^[30][31] Nonetheless, irregular forces, such as tribal cavalry, remained a major element into the late nineteenth century.^[32]

In 1878, the arsenals in Tehran and Tabriz contained 10,000Chassepot rifles, 40,000Tabatière rifles and from 20,000 to 30,000 of other firearms. The Tabatières were captured by the Germans in 1870 and then sold tothe Shah on his travel to Europe for 21 francs each. The artillery included around 500 smooth-bore and 60 rifled guns, all made of brass, the latter of which had been rifled in Iran on the Belgian system.^[33]Lord Curzon however, reports the number of Chassepot rifles at 20,000 and the Tabatière rifles at 30,000 in 1892.^[34]

TheRussian Empire established thePersian Cossack Brigade in 1879, a force which was led by Russian officers and served as a vehicle for influence in Iran.^[35][36] The brigade gave the Russian Empire influence over the modernization of the Qajar army. This was especially pronounced because the Persian monarchy's legitimacy was predicated on an image of military prowess, first Turkic and then European-influenced.^[37][30]

During thePersian Constitutional Revolution, Qajar Iran was invaded by Russia to support the Shah, with British diplomatic support. This included theRussian occupation of Tabriz.^[31]

By the 1910s, the Qajar Iran was decentralised to the extent that foreign powers sought to bolster the central authority of the Qajars by providing military aid. It was viewed as a process of defensive modernisation; however, this also led tointernal colonisation.^[38]

TheIranian Gendarmerie was founded in 1911 with the assistance ofSweden.^[39][38] The involvement of a neutral country was seen to avoid "Great Game" rivalry between Russia and Britain, as well as avoid siding with any particular alliance (in the prelude toWorld War I). Persian administrators thought the reforms could strengthen the country against foreign influences. The Swedish-influenced police had some success in building up Persian police in centralizing the country.^[39] After 1915, Russia and Britain demanded the recall of the Swedish advisers. Some Swedish officers left, while others sided with the Germans and Ottomans in their intervention in Persia. The remainder of the Gendarmerie was namedamniya after a patrol unit that existed in the early Qajar dynasty.^[39]

The number of Russian officers in the Cossack Brigade would increase over time. Britain also sentsepoys to reinforce the Brigade. After the start of theRussian Revolution, manytsarist supporters remained in Persia as members of the Cossack Brigade rather than fighting for or against theSoviet Union.^[36]

The British formed theSouth Persia Rifles in 1916, which was initially separate from the Persian army until 1921.^[40]

In 1921, the Russian-officeredPersian Cossack Brigade was merged with the gendarmerie and other forces, and would become supported by the British.^[41]

Ultimately, through Qajar rule the military institution was further developed and a capable and regionally superior military force was developed, which saw limited service during thePersian Campaign of theFirst World War.

At the end of the Qajar dynasty in 1925, Reza Shah's Pahlavi army would include members of the gendarmerie, Cossacks, and former members of the South Persia Rifles.^[36]

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When thePahlavi dynasty came to power, the Qajar dynasty was already weak from years of war with Russia. The standing Persian army was almost non-existent. The new kingReza Shah Pahlavi, was quick to develop a new military, theImperial Iranian Army. In part, this involved sending hundreds of officers to European and American military academies. It also involved having foreigners re-train the existing army within Iran. In this period a national air force (theImperial Iranian Air Force) was established and the foundation for a new navy (theImperial Iranian Navy) was laid. Other armed forces of the time included theImperial Guard and theIranian Gendarmerie.

Following Germany's invasion of theSoviet Union in June 1941, theUnited Kingdom and the Soviet Union became allies. Both saw the newly opened Trans-Iranian Railroad as a strategic route to transport supplies from thePersian Gulf to the Soviet Union and were concerned that Reza Shah was sympathetic to theAxis powers, despite his declaration of neutrality. In August 1941, the UK and the Soviet Unioninvaded Iran and deposed him in favor of his sonMohammad Reza Pahlavi. Following the end of theSecond World War, both countries withdrew their military forces from Iran.

Following a number of clashes in April 1969,relations with Iraq fell into a steep decline, mainly due to adispute over theShatt al-Arab (called Arvand Rud in Persian) waterway in the 1937 Algiers Accord. Iran abrogated the 1937 accord and demanded a renegotiation which ended completely in its favor. Furthermore, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi embarked on an unprecedented modernisation program of the Iranian armed forces. In many cases Iran was being supplied with advanced weaponry even before it was supplied to the armed forces of the countries that developed it. During this period of strength Iran protected its interests militarily in the region: inOman, theDhofar Rebellion was crushed. In November 1971, Iranian forces seized control of three uninhabited but strategic islands at the mouth of the Persian Gulf;Abu Musa and the Tunb islands.

In the 1960s as Iran began to prosper from oil revenues, and diplomatic relations were established with many countries, Iran began to expand its military. In the 1960s it purchased Canada's fleet of 90Canadair Sabre fighters armed withAIM-9 Sidewinder missiles. These aircraft were later sold toPakistan.^[42]

In the early 1970s the Iranian economy saw record years of growth thanks to booming oil prices. By 1976, the Iranian GDP was the largest in the Greater Middle East. The Shah (king) of Iran set about modernising the Iranian military, intent on purchasing billions of dollars' worth of the most sophisticated and advanced equipment and weaponry from countries like the United States and the United Kingdom.^[43]

Iran's purchases from theUnited States prior to theIranian revolution in 1979 included: 79F-14 Tomcats, 455M60 Patton tanks, 225McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter planes, including 16 of the RF-4E reconnaissance variant; 166Northrop F-5 fighters including 15 of the RF-5A reconnaissance variant; 6Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft and two decommissioned and modernised American destroyers, (USS Zellars andUSS Stormes). As of 1976 Iran had acquired 500M109 howitzers from the United States, 52MIM-23 Hawk anti aircraft batteries with over 2000 missiles, over 2500AGM-65 Maverick air to ground missiles and over 10,000BGM-71 TOW missiles. Furthermore, Iran ordered hundreds of helicopters from the United States, notably 202Bell AH-1J Sea Cobras, 100Boeing CH-47C Chinooks and 287Bell 214 helicopters.^[44]

Iran's purchases from the United Kingdom prior to the 1979 revolution included 1 decommissioned and modernized British destroyer (HMS Sluys), 4 British-built frigates (theAlvand class,) and a vast array of missiles such as theRapier andSeacat systems. Additionally Iran purchased several dozenSR.N6 hovercraft, 250FV101 Scorpion light tanks and 790Chieftain tanks.^[45][46]

Iran also notably received much of its armored equipment from the Soviet Union. These deals were usually bartered using cheap oil and natural gas from the Iranian side in exchange for Soviet expertise, training and equipment. In regards to military equipment Iran orderedZSU-23-4 artillery vehicles, 300BTR-60s along with 270BTR-50s and 300BM-21 Grad multiple rocket launchers.^[47][48]

The Imperial Iranian Navy maintained the largest fleet of operational attack hovercraft in the world. These hovercraft were obtained from various British and American companies and were later retrofitted with weaponry. In having this fleet the Iranian navy would be able to patrol shallow areas or the gulf and avoid minefields.^[49]

The Iranian military never received many of the orders placed in the late 1970s due to the Iranian Revolution occurring in February 1979. The list below seeks to highlight some of the major orders that were placed prior the Iranian revolution but were never completed or delivered.

In the late 1970s, Iran accelerated its orders from the United States in an attempt to outpace British, French and Chinese military orders. The Shah of Iran believed that Iran was destined to become a world super power, proudly led by one of the strongest militaries in the world. By 1972, the Imperial Iranian Armed Forces had a total of 298,300 personnel, excluding the nation's police. A year later, in 1973, around 59% ofIranian males were fit for service.^[50] In regards to the Imperial Iranian Air Force, in 1976 Iranordered 300F-16 Fighting Falcons and a further 71Grumman F-14 Tomcats on top of the 79 that had arrived. All of these orders were due in 1980. In September 1976 Iran formally requested the purchase of 250F/A-18 Hornets, however this order would not have arrived until 1985. In addition to this, in late 1977 Iran ordered 7 BoeingBoeing E-3 Sentry AWACS command and control aircraft and 12Boeing 707 jets designed to refuel planes in midair.^[51][52][53]

A massive order was made by the Iranian government in an attempt to modernize the Iranian Imperial Navy and give it the capability to patrol theCaspian Sea, thePersian Gulf and theIndian Ocean. The Navy had placed an order for 4Kidd-class destroyers armed with Standard missiles,Harpoon missiles, Phalanx CIWSs and Mark 46 torpedoes; as well as 3 used and retrofittedTang-class submarines (these were transferred rather than sold to Iran from theUS Navy) armed with Harpoon missiles. In addition the navy sought to acquire 39Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol planes for ocean surveillance and anti-submarine warfare.^[54][55] Unlike the air force, the Imperial Iranian Navy did not solely rely on American armaments and used a wide variety of suppliers. FromGermany, Iran ordered 6 dieseltype 209 submarines due to arrive in 1980 intended to protect Iran in the Indian Ocean.^[56] From Italy, Iran ordered 6Lupo-class frigates, capable of anti-submarine warfare and outfitted with Otomat missiles.^[57] In 1978 Iran ordered 8Kortenaer-class frigates from theNetherlands, each one armed with Mk. 46 torpedoes, Harpoon missiles and Sea Sparrow anti-aircraft missiles. In the same year Iran sought to order a further fourBremen-class frigates (similar in design to theKortenaer class).^[58] Iran had entered discussions with Great Britain as early as the late 1960s to purchase a nuclear powered aircraft carrier that would give Iran amphibious attack capabilities in the Indian Ocean. While initially interested in purchasing oneCVA-01 aircraft carrier, which was later on cancelled by the British,Iran expressed interest in theInvincible-class aircraft carriers.^[59] Talks were in place for Iran to purchase 3 modified versions of these carriers however no official record stands to prove that such an order was placed.^[60] From France, Iran ordered 12La Combattante II type fast attack craft (named theKaman class) equipped with Harpoon missiles. Of this order, approximately 6 were delivered and the subsequent 6 cancelled.

During this same time-frame in the 1970s the Imperial Iranian Army was making several advancements and placing massive orders to keep up with other branches of the military. To reinforce the ground troops Iran ordered 500M109 howitzers and 455M60 Patton A3 tanks from the United States. The largest order was placed with the United Kingdom for 2000Chieftain tanks, which had been specifically designed for the Imperial Iranian Army.^[60] Some other major equipment on order included hundreds of SovietBMP-1s outfitted with anti-tank missiles.^[46] In addition the Iranians sought to strengthen their position in theStrait of Hormuz by setting up missile sites in the close vicinity.

When the Carter administration turned down Iran's request for nuclear capable missiles, it turned to Israel. It was working on theProject Flower ballistic missiles with Israel.^[61]

In addition to these developments, the government of Iran had begun alongside American and British corporations, the licensed manufacturing of several different types of military equipment. Iran was very active in manufacturing Bell Helicopters, Boeing Helicopters and TOW missiles. Many bases were under construction to house all of the military equipment. Two very notable and large bases were to be built were inAbadan, where a massive infantry unit and air force presence would serve to protect Iran from any Iraqi aggression, while the other inChabahar was to house a port capable of housing submarines and aircraft carriers which would allow Iran to patrol the Indian Ocean.^[60]

At this time Iran was investing over $10bn in the construction of nuclear power stations; 8 locations would be built by the US, 2 by Germany and 2 by France, for its 23,000 MW nuclear project which could produce enough uranium for 500–600 warheads.^[62][63]

Iran contributed toUnited Nations peacekeeping operations. It joined theUnited Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC) in the 1960s, and ten years later, Iranian troops joined theUnited Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) on theGolan Heights.^{[citation needed]}

• 
  Imperial Iranian Ministry of War
• 
  Imperial Iranian Army (IIA)
• 
  Imperial Iranian Air Force (IIAF)
• 
  Imperial Iranian Navy (IIN)
• 
  Imperial Iranian Gendarmerie (IIG)
• 
  Shahrbani
• 
  Imperial Guard

In 1979, the year of therevolution in whichAyatollah Khomeini, who had been exiled by the shah for 15 years, heightened the rhetoric against the "Great Satan"^[64] andfocused popular anger on the United States and its embassy in Tehran, the Shah's departure was consummated. The Iranian military thereupon experienced a 60% desertion from its ranks. Following the ideological principles of the Islamic revolution in Iran, the new revolutionary government sought to strengthen its domestic situation by conducting a purge of senior military personnel closely associated with thePahlavi dynasty. It is still unclear how many were dismissed or executed. The purge encouraged the dictator ofIraq,Saddam Hussein to view Iran as disorganised and weak, leading to theIran–Iraq War.

The indecisive eight-year Iran-Iraq War (IIW), which began on 22 September 1980 when Iraq invaded Iran, wreaked havoc on the region and the Iranian military. After it expanded into thePersian Gulf, where it led to clashes between the United States Navy and Iran (1987–1988), the IIW ended on 20 August 1988 when both parties accepted aUN-brokered ceasefire.^[65][66]

On 26 August 1988, the UN publishedSecurity Council Resolution 620 because it was "deeply dismayed" and "profoundly concerned" that Iraq had employedchemical weapons on an indiscriminate basis, and called^[67]

upon all States to continue to apply, to establish or to strengthen strict control of the export of chemical products serving for the production of chemical weapons, in particular to parties to a conflict, when it is established or when there is substantial reason to believe that they have used chemical weapons in violation of international obligations.

Following the Iran-Iraq War, an ambitious military rebuilding program was set into motion with the intention to create a fully fledgedmilitary industry.^{[citation needed]} Islamic Iran has always striven to foster and develop the nuclear science industry it captured from the Shah. In 2002George W. Bush tagged Iran with the labelAxis of evil, and in 2003, theProliferation Security Initiative was born. TheIAEA became concerned around this time with Iran's potentialweaponization of nuclear technology, and that led in 2006 to the formation of theP5+1 consortium, which signed in 2015 with Iran the now-imperilledJCPOA that was designed to prevent nuclear weaponization by Iran.

Regionally, since the Islamic Revolution, Iran has sought to exert its influence by supporting various groups (militarily and politically). It openly supportsHezbollah inLebanon in order to influence Lebanon and threatenIsrael.^{[citation needed]} VariousKurdish groups are also supported as needed in order to maintain control of its Kurdish regions.^{[citation needed]} In neighbouringAfghanistan, Iran supported theNorthern Alliance for over a decade against theTaliban, and nearly went to war against the Taliban in 1998.^[68]

UnderKhamenei, and especially in the decade from 2010, Iran has made no secret of its ambitions as a regional-class power. It was formally excluded from participation in theIraq War (2003–2011). Its contention with theSaudi Arabia, especially as one of the sponsors of theHouthi rebellion inYemen, and its military aid toSyria over the course of theSyrian Civil War mark it as a threat to the status quoPax Americana, under which flourish minorSunni Emirates along the West coast of the Persian Gulf.

In September 2019, as joint military exercises with Russia and China in theGulf of Oman and theIndian Ocean were announced,President Rouhani declared to America and theG7 Nations that^[69][70]

Your presence has always been a calamity for this region and the farther you go from our region and our nations the more security would come.

In 2021, the regular army had announced that it will launch a satellite into space.^[71]

According to annual assessment 2023 by the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Iran's equipped strengths include at slightest 580,000 dynamic work force and roughly 200,000 prepared save staff inside theArmed force and theIslamic Guard Corps. Afshon Ostovar, an associate professor of national security affairs at the Naval Postgraduate School and an expert on Iran’s military expressed “It's not that Iran's foes are anxious of Iran, They recognize that any strife with Iran would be amazingly serious.” Fabian Hinz, an expert on Iran’s military at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in Berlin stated “The degree of back and the differences of frameworks that Iran has is really phenomenal, especially with respect to drones,ballistic missiles and cruise missiles.” Mr. Estavar stated that Iran possesses one of the largest arsenals of ballistic missiles and drones in the Middle East, which includes cruise missiles, anti-ship missiles, and ballistic missiles with ranges of up to 2,000 kilometers (over 1,200 miles).^[72]

• 
  Headquarter of Iran Armed Forces
• 
  Iranian Armed Forces
• 
  Ground Force of Iran
• 
  Air Force of Iran
• 
  Navy of Iran
• 
  Revolutionary Guards
• 
  Islamic Republic of Iran Air Defense Force

• Air force history of Iran
• Central Treaty Organization
• Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces

• Moshtagh Khorasani, Manouchehr (2006).Arms and Armor from Iran: The Bronze Age to the End of the Qajar Period. Legat Verlag.ISBN 978-3932942228.
• The Middle East: 2000 Years of History From The Rise of Christianity to the Present Day, Bernard Lewis, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995.
• Qajar Studies: War and Peace in the Qajar Era, Journal of the Qajar Studies Association, London: 2005.
• Moshtagh Khorasani, Manouchehr (March 2009)."Las Técnicas de la Esgrima Persa".Revista de Artes Marciales Asiáticas (in Spanish).4 (1):20–49.doi:10.18002/rama.v4i1.223.hdl:10612/16272.
• Moshtagh Khorasani, Manouchehr (2009)."Persian Firearms Part One: The Matchlocks".Classic Arms and Militaria.XVI (1):42–47.
• Moshtagh Khorasani, Manouchehr (2009)."Persian Firearms Part Two: The Flintlock".Classic Arms and Militaria.XVI (2):22–26.
• Farrokh, Kaveh (2011).Iran at War 1500-1988(PDF). Osprey Publishing.ISBN 978-1846034916. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 21 June 2025.

• Military history of Iran

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