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Themilitary history of Europe refers to the history ofwarfare on the European continent. From the beginning of themodern era to the second half of the 20th century, European militaries have possessed a significant technological advantage, allowing its states to pursue policies ofexpansionism andcolonization until theCold War period. European militaries in between the fifteenth century and the modern period were able to conquer or subjugate almost every other nation in the world. Since the end of the Cold War, the European security environment has been characterized by structural dominance of theUnited States through itsNATO commitments to the defense of Europe, as European states have sought to reap the 'peace dividend' occasioned by the end of the Cold War and reduce defense expenditures. European militaries now mostly undertakepower projection missions outside the European continent. Recent military conflicts involving European nations include the2001 War in Afghanistan, the2003 War in Iraq, the2011 NATO Campaign in Libya, and various other engagements in the Balkan and on the African continent. After 2014, theRussian annexation of Crimea and the ongoingRusso-Ukrainian War prompted renewed scholarly interest into European military affairs.[1] For further the context seeHistory of Europe .
Due to the numerous countries that grew out of Medieval feudalism and de-centralization from theWestern Roman Empire's fall, different nations have had a power struggle. TheBritish Isles were more protected against land invasion fromContinental Europe and as such have felt less damage from mainland Europe's struggles. In contrast, the area ofGermany and its surrounding territories were at the center of many revolving conflicts. The area ofRussia has been known as the 'sleeping giant' or 'great bear' due to it comparatively remaining passive militarily toward the rest of Europe prior to the 19th century and out of Western and Central Europe's affairs. TheRoman Empire growing out of theItalian Peninsula has been called 'the firstsuper power'. France having the natural barriers of theRhine to the east, thePyrenees to the south, and theEnglish Channel to the north has tried to maintain these throughout its history with rivalry with Britain for centuries and then with Germany. Britain and France were the most successful in establishing a broadcolonial empire spanning from Africa to Asia, with a majority of that success attributed to them being almost sealocked.
The era was dominated by the Mediterranean nations, most notablyAncient Greece andAncient Rome. Ancient Greece warred with its rival thePersian Empire which was the greatest danger to Europe in theGreco-Persian Wars.Ancient Rome continued the conflict with Persia in theRoman-Persian Wars. The North African city ofCarthage foughtthree wars against Rome and lost allowing Rome to finally be master of the Mediterranean.Julius Caesar made the first Roman incursions intoBritannia. Numerous civil wars plagued Ancient Rome for many centuries, but it was the eventual Barbarian incursion fromCentral and Eastern Europe which contributed the most to thefall of the Western Roman Empire. Great migrations from Asia, caused a ripple effect of Eastern Europeans migrating west frombarbarians, most well known of these theHuns. TheWestern Roman Empire fell to these barbarians helped with the fact of economic inflation and internal strife. TheEastern Roman Empire still remained untouched until the late Middle Ages.[2]
The early parts of the medieval period known as theDark Ages saw the first conflicts with theEastern Roman Empire which continued to fight the Persians in theRoman-Persian Wars and against theMuslim conquests shortly after. In the Medieval period, feudalism was firmly implanted, and there existed many landlords in Europe with armored cavalry being the dominant on the battlefield. Landlords often owned castles to protect their territory. TheOttoman Empire was formed with considerable projection into theBalkan region after finally defeating the Eastern Roman Capital ofConstantinople. TheHoly Roman Empire was formed byCharlemagne and campaigned againstDenmark and the Muslims inSpain. TheCrusades were a series of military campaigns waged in the name ofWestern Christianity, the aim was to recaptureJerusalem and theHoly Land from the Muslims including crusades in Northern Europe and against Russia. TheMongolian Empire stretched into Eastern Europe with many eastern European armies falling under the horde. The Russian region known asKievan Rus' was dominated by the Mongols with centuries of warfare. Military action died down in the early to mid 14th century considering theblack death was wreaking havoc through much of Europe. The medieval ages ended with the Western European conflict of theHundred Years' War (1337 to 1453) that was primarily betweenEngland andFrance ending in French victory.[3]
Gunpowder small-arms ended cavalry superiority. TheItalian Wars dominated the early part of this period. It originally started as a dynastic dispute but eventually involved all the European powers as a struggle for power and territory. TheThirty Years' War from 1618 to 1648 dominated Central Europe from the participation of all the major European powers resulting in German areas' virtual economic disintegration.
TheGreat Northern War (1700 to 1721) was fought between Russia,Denmark-Norway,Saxony-Poland and between Sweden and the Ottoman Empire ending in Russian victory with the end of theSwedish empire and the use of Sweden as a power satellite in the region. TheSeven Years' War (1754 and 1756–1763) that enveloped both European and colonial theaters involved all the major European powers. France was at the center of attention with theFrench Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars starting from theFrench Revolution, the combined conflicts lasting from 1792 and ending in 1815 with the defeat ofNapoleon at theBattle of Waterloo. The German states, headed byPrussia, taking a century of recovery from the devastation of the 30 Years' War, started a series of victorious wars first starting with theDanish-Prussian War (1864),Austro-Prussian War (1866), and ending in theFranco-Prussian War (1870–71) that resulted in theunification of Germany forming theGerman Empire.
World War I was aglobal war fought chiefly in Europe from 1914 to 1918.[4]
After World War I, the major European experienced two decades of relative peace. TheRussian Civil War lasted from 1917 to 1922, saw the intervention of various European powers, ending in victory for theBolsheviks and the formation of theSoviet Union. Simultaneously, the emerging Soviet government conducted thePolish-Soviet War that lasted from 1919 to 1921 and an ongoing conflict with Finland. TheIrish War of Independence was fought from 1919-1921, a guerrilla war against theUnited Kingdom. It was followed by theIrish Civil War, which erupted over a disagreement betweenIrish nationalist factions about theAnglo-Irish Treaty, establishing theIrish Free State as adominion of theBritish Empire. The interwar era was characterized by a continuingdisarmament andinternationalist movement. Both sides of the imminentSecond World War increased military production during the 1930s, but were limited by theWashington Naval Treaty. Unlike the punitive restrictions on land forces nominally imposed by theTreaty of Versailles, Nazi Germany notably complied with the naval restrictions. This resulted in crucial limitations in Germany'sKriegsmarine against theRoyal Navy.The interwar years in Europe were brought to a close by theSpanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939. This conflict was a prelude to the World War II, both in new technologies used (strategic andtactical aerial bombing,mechanized warfare, direct attacks on civilian populations, guerilla operations) and belligerents (Fascist Italy andNazi Germany supporting theNationalist side, Communist Russia and various European leftist groups supporting theLoyalist side).
World War II was a global military conflict which involved amajority of the world's nations, including all of thegreat powers, organised into two opposing military alliances: theAllies led by theUnited States, theUnited Kingdom, and theSoviet Union, versus theAxis powers led byNazi Germany,Fascist Italy, and theEmpire of Japan. The war involved the mobilisation of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history. In a state of "total war", the major participants placed their complete economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Over70 million died, the majority of them civilians, making it the deadliest conflict inhuman history.[5]
The Cold War was the state of conflict, tension and competition that existed between theUnited States and theSoviet Union and their respective allies from the mid-1940s to the early 1990s. Throughout this period, rivalry between the twosuperpowers was expressed through military coalitions,propaganda,espionage,weapons development, industrial advances, and competitivetechnological development, which included thespace race. Both superpowers engaged in costly defence spending, a massiveconventional andnuclear arms race, and numerousproxy wars.[6]
After the Cold War ended, wars have only taken place in Europe during thebreakup of Yugoslavia. These wars involved separatist states and the combat of terrorism in southernYugoslavia. In 1991, separatistCroatia,Slovenia, andMacedonia split from theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1992, they were followed byBosnia-Herzegovina. In 2006,Montenegro andSerbia split resulting in the dissolution of theState Union of Serbia and Montenegro (formerFederal Republic of Yugoslavia). The current conflict in the area of northern Macedonia and Serbian province Kosovo, where Albanian paramilitaries started guerilla war against the government forces.Kosovar Albanians want complete independence from Serbia. Serbia is only offering autonomy of its sovereign territory.
In comparison to thebreakup of Yugoslavia, thebreakup of the Soviet Union and the creation of theCommonwealth of Independent States was peaceful.
European armies still participate in wars outside the European continent, including conflicts involvingNATO members. European soldiers currently are based inAfrica, theAmericas (Haiti) andAsia (Afghanistan,Iraq,Lebanon).
European military spending is roughly half that of theUnited States and about a quarter of the global total.