Dwight D. Eisenhower | |
|---|---|
 Eisenhower in 1947 | |
| Nickname | Ike |
| Born | (1890-10-14)14 October 1890 Denison, Texas, US |
| Died | 28 March 1969(1969-03-28) (aged 78) Washington, D.C., US |
| Allegiance | United States |
| Branch | United States Army |
| Years of service | 1915 – 1953 1961 – 1969 |
| Rank | General of the Army |
| Commands | Supreme Allied Commander Europe Chief of Staff of the United States Army Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force in Western Europe Commanding General, European Theater of Operations Commander-in-Chief, Allied Forces in North Africa |
| Battles / wars | See battles |
| Awards | Navy Distinguished Service Medal Army Distinguished Service Medal (5) Legion of Merit |
| Other work | President of Columbia University, NY President of the United States of America |
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World War II 34th President of the United States
First Term Second Term Presidential campaigns Post-Presidency   | ||
The military career ofDwight D. Eisenhower began in June 1911, when Eisenhower took the oath as a cadet at theUnited States Military Academy in West Point, New York. Ike commissioned as asecond lieutenant in theUnited States Army in June 1915, as part of "the class the stars fell on". He rose through the ranks over the next thirty years and became one of the most importantAllied generals ofWorld War II, being promoted toGeneral of the Army in 1944. Eisenhower retired from the military after winning the1952 presidential election, though his rank as General of the Army was restored by an act of Congress in March 1961.
After graduating from theUnited States Military Academy in 1915, Eisenhower was assigned to the19th Infantry Regiment atFort Sam Houston. He served in the continental United States throughoutWorld War I, ending the war as the commander of a battalion that trained tank crews. After the war, he served as part of aTranscontinental Motor Convoy that traveled across the continental United States. In 1922, he was transferred to thePanama Canal Zone, where he served under GeneralFox Conner. He then served on theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission under the command of GeneralJohn J. Pershing. In 1929, he became the executive officer to GeneralGeorge Van Horn Moseley, who served on the staff ofAssistant Secretary of WarFrederick Huff Payne. In 1935, Eisenhower accompanied GeneralDouglas MacArthur to thePhilippines, where they served as military advisers charged with developing thePhilippine Army. Eisenhower returned to the United States in 1939 and took part in theLouisiana Maneuvers as the chief of staff to GeneralWalter Krueger.
After the United States entered World War II, GeneralGeorge C. Marshall assigned Eisenhower to the War Plans Division in Washington, D.C. Eisenhower became the commander of American forces inBritain in June 1942 and was assigned to leadOperation Torch, the Allied invasion ofFrench North Africa. After the success of Operation Torch, Eisenhower led the successfulAllied invasion of Tunisia, forcing the surrender of all Axis forces in May 1943. Eisenhower led the opening phases of theItalian campaign, but was subsequently assigned to lead the Allied invasion of Western Europe in December 1943. He served as the supreme commander ofOperation Overlord, the Allied invasion ofNormandy, and took command of subsequent operations in France. Following the success of Operation Overlord, the Allies quickly took control of much of Western Europe, but the Germans launched a major counter-attack in theBattle of the Bulge. German resistance quickly collapsed following the Allied victory in that battle, and Eisenhower accepted the surrender of Germany in May 1945.
After the war, Eisenhower served as the commander of the American zone of occupation in Germany. In November 1945, he succeeded Marshall as thechief of staff of the United States Army. Eisenhower left active duty in 1948 to become the president ofColumbia University, but rejoined the army in 1951 to become the first supreme commander ofNATO. He left the army once again in 1952 to run forPresident of the United States; his presidential candidacy was successful and he served as president from January 1953 to January 1961.
Eisenhower graduated with theUnited States Military Academy's class of 1915, "the class the stars fell on", ranked 61st in a class of 164. A knee injured playing football and aggravated while horseback riding that could have caused the government to later give Eisenhower amedical discharge and disability pension, almost caused the army not to commission him after graduation. This was acceptable to Eisenhower, who was curious aboutgaucho life and began planning a trip toArgentina. West Point's chief medical officer offered to recommend him for a commission in theCoast Artillery, but Eisenhower viewed it as offering "a minimum of excitement" and preferred to become a civilian. The doctor then offered to recommend Eisenhower for a commission if he agreed not to seek appointment to theCavalry. Eisenhower intended to become anInfantry officer, so he readily agreed. Because of the injury, West Point's academic board recommended against commissioning Eisenhower, but the doctor interceded successfully with the War Department and Eisenhower was commissioned as asecond lieutenant in September 1915.[1]
Eisenhower requested to serve in the Insular Government of thePhilippine Islands, but was assigned to the19th Infantry Regiment atFort Sam Houston inSan Antonio, Texas.[2] While stationed there, Eisenhower served as the football coach for St. Louis College, nowSt. Mary's University.[3] He also met and marriedMamie Doud, the daughter of a meat-processing facility owner fromDenver, Colorado.[4] Eisenhower performed security duties along the Mexican Border during thePancho Villa Expedition and received his first command assignment when he was chosen to lead the 19th Infantry's Company F.[5]
World War I had broken out in Europe in 1914, and the U.S. joined the war on the side of theEntente Powers in April 1917.[6] Like many 19th Infantry personnel, Eisenhower was promoted and assigned to the newly created57th Infantry Regiment, where he served as the regimental supply officer.[7] In September 1917, he was assigned to train reserve officers, first atFort Oglethrope and then atFort Leavenworth.[8]
In February 1918, he was transferred toCamp Meade, Maryland, where he was assigned command of the 301st Heavy Tank Battalion. By the beginning of 1918, the United States Army did not have a single operational tank, but the battalion planned to use British-providedMark VI tanks after arriving in Europe. The 301st was initially scheduled to be deployed to Europe in early 1918, but in March 1918 thetank corps was established as an independent branch of the army, and Eisenhower's unit was assigned for further training atCamp Colt.[9] After months of rudimentary training, the first tank, aRenault FT, arrived in June 1918. In September, the "Spanish flu" epidemic hit the camp, ultimately killing 175 of the roughly 10,000 men under his command.[10] In October, Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and two weeks later he received orders to deploy to Europe. Shortly before the deployment, the war ended with the signing of theArmistice of 11 November 1918.[11] Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills, as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel.[12] Despite his success as an organizer and trainer, his World War II rivals often sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his lack of combat experience.[13]
With the end of World War I, the United States dramatically cut back military spending, and the number of active duty personnel in the army dropped from 2.4 million in late 1918 to about 150,000 in 1922.[14] Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank[a] ofcaptain, but was almost immediately promoted to the rank ofmajor, the rank he held for the next sixteen years.[17] Along with the rest of the tank corps, Eisenhower was assigned toFort George G. Meade in Maryland.[18] In 1919, he served on theTranscontinental Motor Convoy, an army vehicle exercise that traveled from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco at a pace of 5 mph.[19] The convoy was designed both as a training event and as a way to publicize the need for better roads, and spurred many states to increase funding for road-building.[20] Eisenhower's experience in the convoy would later influence his decision to help create theInterstate Highway System in the 1950s.[21]
He then returned to his duties at Camp Meade, serving as executive officer and then as commander of the 305th Tank Brigade, which fieldedMark VIII tanks.[22] His new expertise intank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration withGeorge S. Patton,Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders; while Eisenhower commanded the 305th Tank Brigade, Patton commanded the 304th, which fielded the lighterRenault FT tank and was also based at Camp Meade.[22] Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry.[23] After being threatened with acourt-martial by GeneralCharles S. Farnsworth, the chief of infantry, Eisenhower refrained from publishing theories that challenged existing tank doctrine.[24] Although Secretary of WarNewton D. Baker andChief of StaffPeyton C. March both advocated for the continuation of the tank corps as an independent branch of the army, theNational Defense Act of 1920 folded the tank corps into the infantry.[25] In 1921Army Inspector GeneralEli Helmick found that Eisenhower had improperly received $250.76 inhousing allowance. Eisenhower claimed he had received the money with no intent to deceive, and he repaid it in full after Helmick made his finding. Helmick still pressed for a court-martial, and only the intervention of GeneralFox Conner, who told Pershing he wanted Eisenhower to serve as his executive officer in thePanama Canal Zone, saved Eisenhower from possible imprisonment and dismissal from the service. Though Conner saved Eisenhower's career, Eisenhower still received a written reprimand that became part of his military record.[26]
Between 1922 and 1939, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner,John J. Pershing, andDouglas MacArthur. Accompanied by Mamie, he served as General Conner's executive officer in Panama from 1922 to 1924.[27] Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory, including the campaigns ofNapoleon, theAmerican Civil War, andCarl von Clausewitz'sOn War. Conner also shared his experiences working with the French and British during World War I, emphasizing the importance of the "art of persuasion" when dealing with allies.[28] Eisenhower later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met."[27] Conner would play a critical role in Eisenhower's career, often helping him gain choice assignments.[29]
On Conner's recommendation,[30] and ranked in the top 10% of active-duty majors, in 1925–26 Eisenhower attended theCommand and General Staff College (CGS) atFort Leavenworth. He was worried that he would be disadvantaged by not having attendedInfantry School like most of his classmates, but Conner assured him that his study in Panama was good preparation; Eisenhower graduated first in his CGS class of 245 officers. The army considered making him the head of theReserve Officers' Training Corps program at a major university (Eisenhower would also have served as its football coach, doubling his pay) or a CGS faculty member, but assigned him as executive officer of the24th Infantry Regiment atFort Benning, Georgia until 1927. Eisenhower disliked serving with theBuffalo Soldiers regiment; many white officers viewed serving in an all-black unit as punishment for poor performance.[31]
With Conner's help, Eisenhower was assigned to work under General Pershing on theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission, which established monuments and cemeteries in Western Europe to honor fallen American soldiers.[32] While serving on the commission, he producedA Guide to the American Battlefields in Europe, a 282-page work which consisted largely of a history of theAmerican Expeditionary Forces' battles on theWestern Front during World War I.[33] He next attended theArmy War College, where he graduated first in his class in 1928.[32] After graduating from the Army War College, he was reassigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission, arriving inParis in August 1928.[34] While in Europe, he learned to read (but not speak)French, continued his study of World War I battles, and followed the contemporary politics of theFrench Third Republic.[35] In 1929, while helping General Pershing compile his memoirs, Eisenhower met ColonelGeorge C. Marshall for the first time.[36]
In 1929, Eisenhower became the executive officer to GeneralGeorge Van Horn Moseley, who served on the staff ofAssistant Secretary of WarFrederick Huff Payne.[37] In this role, Eisenhower helped make national defense policy and studied wartime industrial mobilization and the relationship between government and industry.[38] He formulated a 180-page mobilization plan, known as M-Day Plan, which was never utilized but which impressed his superiors.[39] After Douglas MacArthur became army chief of staff, he assigned Moseley as Deputy Chief of Staff. Eisenhower officially remained on Moseley's staff, but he also worked as MacArthur's unofficial military secretary and served on the War Policies Commission, which studied the possibility of a constitutional amendment designed to clarify Congress's war-time powers.[40] In 1932, he participated in MacArthur's violent clearing of theBonus March encampment in Washington, D.C.[41] Eisenhower wrote and submitted MacArthur's official report regarding the incident, but he was privately critical of MacArthur's heavy-handed methods.[42] PresidentHerbert Hoover was strongly criticized in the press for his administration's handling of Bonus March, even from papers that were normally sympathetic to his administration.[43] In 1933, Eisenhower graduated from the Army Industrial College, which is now known as theDwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy.[8]
In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he was charged with developing the nascentPhilippine Army.[44] Congress had passed theTydings–McDuffie Act the previous year, setting the Philippines on the path to independence in 1946, and both MacArthur and Eisenhower remained on active duty in the U.S. army while serving asmilitary advisers to the Philippine government.[45][b] Eisenhower declined the rank of brigadier general in the Philippine army, but was promoted to lieutenant colonel in the U.S. army in 1936.[46] Eisenhower viewed the Philippine defense budget as inadequate, and he struggled to provide the army with modern weapons and sufficient training.[49] He had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The resulting antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted the rest of their lives,[50] though Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of his disagreements with MacArthur.[51] In his final official evaluation of Eisenhower, written during 1937, MacArthur wrote that Eisenhower was a "brilliant officer" who "in time of war ... should be promoted to General rank immediately."[52] Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities ofWinston Churchill, George S. Patton, George C. Marshall, andBernard Montgomery during World War II.[51]
Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. By this time, Eisenhower had impressed his fellow officers with his administrative skills, but he had never held an active command above a brigade and few considered him a potential commander of major operations. Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned ascommanding officer (CO) of 1st Battalion,15th Infantry Regiment atFort Lewis.[53] Eisenhower enjoyed his role as a CO, writing later that his command of a battalion during maneuvers "fortified my conviction that I belonged with the troops; with them I was always happy."[54] Eisenhower's time as commander of the battalion was brief, because he was assigned as the regiment'sexecutive officer (XO). In June 1940, Congress promoted every officer in the army by one rank; Eisenhower officially became acolonel in March 1941.[55] He hoped for a regimental command, but was disappointed when Major GeneralCharles F. Thompson, commander of the3rd Infantry Division, which was the 15th Infantry's higher headquarters, selected him to serve as the division's chief of staff.[56] Eisenhower loyally acceded, and his success in the position was later viewed as one factor that caused the Army's senior leaders to identify Eisenhower as a candidate for positions of more rank and responsibility.[56][c] Brigadier GeneralLeonard T. Gerow, an old and close friend, asked Eisenhower to serve on his staff in the War Plans Division, but Eisenhower was determined to hold a command, and his ambivalent reply convinced Gerow to withdraw the request.[59]
The army expanded from about 200,000 men in late 1939 to 1.4 million men in mid-1941. In March 1941, Eisenhower was assigned as chief of staff of the newly activatedIX Corps under Major GeneralKenyon A. Joyce. In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to Lieutenant GeneralWalter Krueger, commander of theThird Army at Fort Sam Houston.[60] In mid-1941, the U.S. Army conducted theLouisiana Maneuvers, the largestmilitary exercise that the army had ever conducted on U.S. soil. TheSecond Army and the Third Army, which collectively had nearly 500,000 troops, conducted two mock battles that both ended in victory for the Third Army.[61] The Third Army's success in the maneuvers impressed Eisenhower's superiors, and he was promoted to temporarybrigadier general on 3 October.[53] Fellow officers predicted that he would become a major general in six months.[62]
After theJapaneseattack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the United States entered World War II. Almost immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor, General Marshall assigned Eisenhower as Deputy Chief of the War Plans Division in Washington.[63] Marshall assigned him to coordinate the defense of the Philippines, and Eisenhower personally dispatched GeneralPatrick J. Hurley to Australia with $10 million to provide supplies to MacArthur.[64] Biographer Jean Edward Smith writes that Marshall and Eisenhower developed a "father-son relationship"; it was widely assumed that Marshall would eventually lead major operations in Europe, and he initially sought to prepare Eisenhower to serve as his chief of staff during those operations.[65] In February 1942, Eisenhower succeeded General Gerow as chief of the War Plans Division (later known as the Operations Division), and he was promoted tomajor general the following month,[66]Time describing him as "one of the finest staff officers in the army".[62]
Tasked with helping develop the army's grand strategy in the war, Eisenhower formulated a plan that centered on the build-up of U.S. forces in Britain, followed by aninvasion of Nazi-occupied Western Europe in April 1943.[67] Eisenhower and Marshall both shared the conclusion of PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill that the United States should pursue aEurope first strategy against theAxis Powers.[63] Though American and British leaders agreed to Eisenhower's proposed April 1943 invasion of Western Europe, competing priorities in other theaters of the war would repeatedly delay the invasion.[68]
While assessingOperation Bolero, the build-up of Allied soldiers in Britain, Marshall and Eisenhower both came to the conclusion that GeneralJames E. Chaney was unsuited to the task of leading American forces in Britain.[69] Eisenhower recommended the appointment of a single American commander in theEuropean Theater of Operations (ETO), suggesting GeneralJoseph T. McNarney for the role. With the blessing of Stimson, Roosevelt, and Churchill, Marshall instead selected Eisenhower for the position, and Eisenhower was officially appointed as the commander of the ETO in June 1942; he was promoted tolieutenant general shortly thereafter.[70]
Eisenhower retained AdmiralHarold Rainsford Stark as the commander of U.S. naval forces in Europe, and selected GeneralMark W. Clark and GeneralCarl Spaatz as the respective commanders of U.S. ground troops and air forces in the theater. GeneralJohn C. H. Lee became the commander of the theater's logistical organization, and GeneralWalter Bedell Smith became Eisenhower's chief of staff.[71] His command involved important military and administrative duties, but one of his chief challenges was coordinating a multinational military and political alliance among combatants with contrasting military traditions and doctrines, as well a level of distrust.[72] He also frequently met with the press and emerged as a public symbol of the Allied war effort.[73]
Overcoming objections from Eisenhower and Marshall, Prime Minister Churchill convinced Roosevelt that the Allies should delay an invasion of Western Europe and instead launchOperation Torch, an invasion in North Africa.[72] The U.S. and Britain had previously agreed to establish aCombined Chiefs of Staff to serve as a unified command structure, and to appoint one individual as the commander of allAllied forces in eachtheater of war.[74][d] Eisenhower became the commander of all Allied forces operating in theMediterranean Theater of Operations, making him the direct superior of both American and British officers.[75]
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The three-pronged Allied landing in North Africa, which biographer Jean Edward Smith describes as the "greatest amphibious operation that had ever been attempted" at that point in history, would take place on the Atlantic coast ofFrench Morocco and on the Mediterranean coast ofAlgeria.[76] At the time, both Algeria and French Morocco were controlled byVichy France, an officiallyneutral power that had been established in southern France following the French surrender to Germany in 1940.[77] Vichy France had a complex relationship with the Allied Powers; it collaborated with Nazi Germany, but was recognized by the United States as the official government of France.[78] Hoping to encourage French forces in Africa to support the Allied campaign, Eisenhower and diplomatRobert Daniel Murphy attempted to recruit GeneralHenri Giraud, who lived in the Vichy-controlled part of France but was not part of its high command.[79]
Eisenhower and Murphy were unable to gain Giraud's full support by the time of the landings, and French forces initially resisted the Allied landing.[80] GeneralAlphonse Juin, the commander of Vichy forces in North Africa, quickly agreed to an armistice inAlgiers, but fighting continued at the other two landing spots.[81] After it became clear that French forces in Africa would not accept Giraud as their commander, Murphy and General Clark negotiated an agreement with AdmiralFrançois Darlan, the commander-in-chief of Vichy armed forces, that granted the Allied Powers military access to French North Africa but confirmed French sovereignty over the region.[82]
Though the agreement with Darlan provided for French cooperation in North Africa, Eisenhower was strongly criticized in the American and British press for his willingness to work with a Vichy official.[83] Darlan was assassinated in December 1942 by FrenchmanFernand Bonnier de La Chapelle,[e] and Eisenhower appointed Giraud as the leader of French forces in Africa.[85] Giraud would later become co-president of theFrench Committee of National Liberation (FCNL) alongsideFree France leaderCharles de Gaulle, but de Gaulle emerged as the clear leader of the organization, and the French war effort, by the end of 1943. Eisenhower, who had not actively supported either Giraud or de Gaulle after the initial campaign in French Africa, established a strong working relationship with de Gaulle for the remainder of the war.[86]
Following the success of Operation Torch, the Allies launched an invasion ofTunisia, which the Germans had taken control of during Operation Torch.[87][f] Bolstered by superior tanks and air power, as well as favorable weather, the German forces established a strong defense of the city ofTunis, leading to a stalemate in the campaign.[89] The slow progress in Tunisia displeased many leading American and British officials, and GeneralHarold Alexander, the head of the BritishNear East Command, was appointed as Eisenhower's deputy commander. At the same time, Eisenhower was promoted to the rank ofgeneral, making him thetwelfth four-star general in U.S. history.[90] In February 1943, German forces launched a successful attack on GeneralLloyd Fredendall'sII Corps at theBattle of Kasserine Pass. The II Corps collapsed and Eisenhower relieved Fredendall of command, but Allied forces prevented a German breakthrough.[91] After the battle, the Allies continually built up their forces and slowly ground down German defenses.[92] 250,000 Axis soldiers surrendered in May 1943, bringing an end to theNorth African Campaign.[93]
As the length of the campaign in Tunisia had made a cross-channel invasion of France impracticable in 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed that the next Allied target would beItaly. The July 1943invasion of Sicily was overseen by Eisenhower and Alexander, with General SirBernard Montgomery and Lieutenant General George S. Patton each leading one of two simultaneous landings.[94] Allied forces staged a successful landing, but they failed to prevent the retreat of a large portion of the German forces to mainland Italy.[95] Shortly after the end of the campaign, Eisenhower severely reprimanded Patton after Pattonslapped two subordinates.[96] Eisenhower refused to dismiss Patton in the midst of a public furor, though the slapping incidents may have played a role in his decision to recommend Lieutenant GeneralOmar Bradley as the leader of preparations for the upcoming invasion of Western Europe.[97]
During the campaign in Sicily, KingVictor Emmanuel III of Italy arrested Prime MinisterBenito Mussolini and replaced him withPietro Badoglio, who secretly negotiated a surrender with the Allies.[98] Germany responded by shifting several divisions to Italy, occupyingRome, and establishing apuppet state, theItalian Social Republic.[99] TheAllied invasion of mainland Italy began in September 1943. In the aftermath of Italy's surrender, the Allies faced unexpectedly strong resistance from German forces under Field MarshalAlbert Kesselring, who nearly defeatedOperation Avalanche, the Allied landing near the port ofSalerno.[100] With 24 German divisions defending the country's rugged terrain, Italy quickly became a secondary theater in the war.[101]
In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower—not Marshall—would leadOperation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Western Europe.[102] Roosevelt believed that Eisenhower's experience leading multinational and amphibious operations made him well qualified for the position, and he was unwilling to lose Marshall as chief of staff.[103] Eisenhower retained Smith as his chief of staff, chose Air Chief Marshal Tedder as his deputy, and made AdmiralBertram Ramsay and General John C. H. Lee the respective heads of naval operations and logistics in the theater. At the insistence of Churchill and the Combined Chiefs of Staff, he selected General Montgomery as commander of ground forces and Air Chief MarshalTrafford Leigh-Mallory as the commander of air forces in the theater.[104] Prioritizing individuals with recent battle experience, he selected Bradley as the senior American field commander and General Spaatz as the head of the American strategic air force.[105] Despite the earlier slapping incidents, Patton was chosen to command theThird Army.[106]
Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, preparing them for the most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault in northern France.[107] The starting point for the operation had been developed by a planning group led by GeneralFrederick E. Morgan; the plan called for a landing inNormandy rather than atPas-de-Calais, which was closer to Britain but was more heavily defended. Eisenhower and Montgomery jointly agreed to alter the plan in several ways, placing a greater emphasis on air superiority, increasing the number of soldiers committed to the operation, and establishing separate American and British landing zones across a wider area than had been originally envisioned.[108] Eisenhower also helped secure de Gaulle's participation in the landing, partly by avoiding a diplomatic incident stemming from the arrest of several former Vichy officials who had assisted the Allies.[109] Eisenhower believed that de Gaulle's cooperation was critical, not only for military operations but also for providing a government in France.[110]
Drawing on the experience of Operation Avalanche, Eisenhower noted that it was "vital that the entire sum of our assault power, including the two Strategic Air Forces, be available for use during the critical stages of the attack."[111] The final landing plan, largely devised by Montgomery, called for nine divisions to land at five zones. Three divisions ofairborne infantry would land behind the enemy lines in order to seize vital roads and bridges.[112] Originally scheduled for May 1944, Operation Overlord was pushed back a month, largely due to landing craft shortages. For the same reason,Operation Dragoon, the Allied landing in Southern France, would take place in August 1944 rather than contemporaneously with Overlord, as had originally been planned.[113] Eisenhower insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate the landing, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did.[114]
High winds delayed Operation Overlord by a day, but Eisenhower chose to take advantage of a break in the weather and ordered theNormandy landings to take place on 6 June 1944.[115] The timing and location of the landings surprised the Germans, and they failed to reinforce the beachheads in a timely manner.[116] Allied forces quickly secured four of the five landing zones, though the Germans put up a strong defense ofOmaha Beach.[117] The Allies consolidated control of the landing zones and launched the next phase of the operation,capturing the port ofCherbourg by the end of June. By the end of July, over 1.5 million Allied soldiers and over 300,000 vehicles had landed in Normandy.[118] The Allies repulsed a German counter-attack at theBattle of the Falaise Pocket, bringing a close to the fighting in Normandy.[119] Meanwhile, the Operation Dragoon landings were successful, as the Allies capturedMarseille and began moving north.[120] On theEastern Front, theSoviet Union launched a major offensive known asOperation Bagration, preventing Germany from sending reinforcements west.[121]
Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy, and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults.[122] Encouraged by de Gaulle and the German commanderDietrich von Choltitz, Eisenhower ordered theliberation of Paris in late August. Von Cholitz surrendered the city on 25 August, and de Gaulle triumphantly entered the city the following day.[123] With German resistance collapsing sooner than had been expected, the Allies rapidly liberated most of France,Belgium, andLuxembourg.[124] General Montgomery proposed an assault through Germany'sRuhr region, while Lieutenant General Bradley called for an attack further south into theSaar region; Eisenhower approved both operations.[125] Eisenhower's decision to split up Allied forces and advance on a broad front strained logistics and gave the Germans time to retreat to more defensible positions closer to Germany.[126]
In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on 20 December 1944, he was promoted toGeneral of the Army, equivalent to the rank offield marshal in most European armies.[127][g] That same month, the Germans launched a surprise counter offensive, theBattle of the Bulge, which the Allies turned back in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and after improved weather allowed the Air Force to engage.[129] Though many Allied soldiers lost their lives in the fighting, Germany suffered a decisive defeat in the battle.[130]
After the Battle of the Bulge and the success of a massive Soviet offensive in early 1945, Eisenhower sent Air Chief Marshal Tedder to the Soviet Union to help establish a joint strategy for theinvasion of Germany.[131] Eisenhower declined to engage the Soviets in a race for the German capital ofBerlin, and instead prioritized linking up with Soviet forces as soon as possible.[132][h] Allied soldiers reached theRhine in early March,capturing a key bridge near the town ofRemagen before the Germans could destroy it.[134] German resistance quickly collapsed, and on 7 May, Eisenhower accepted thesurrender of Germany.[135]
Eisenhower, Montgomery, Soviet MarshalGeorgy Zhukov, and French GeneralJean de Lattre de Tassigny met on 5 June 1945, agreeing to establish theAllied Control Council, which provided for the joint governance of Germany by the four powers.[136] Eisenhower became the military governor of theAmerican occupation zone, located primarily inSouthern Germany andheadquartered at theIG Farben Building inFrankfurt am Main.[137] In September 1945, Eisenhower removed General Patton from his command inBavaria after the latter publicly expressed opposition todenazification. The removal of Patton sent a strong signal to that official policies regarding denazification would be strictly observed.[138] Though Eisenhower aggressively purged ex-Nazis, his actions largely reflected the American attitude that the broad German populace were victims of the Nazis.[137]
In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment.[139][page needed] Upon discovery of theNazi concentration camps, he ordered camera crews to document evidence of the atrocities in them for use in theNuremberg Trials. He reclassified Germanprisoners of war (POWs) in U.S. custody asDisarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to the Geneva Convention.[140][141][142] He also developed a strong working relationship with Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov, the commander of theSoviet occupation zone in Germany. At Zhukov's request, he visitedMoscow, where he observed Russian culture and met with Soviet leaderJoseph Stalin.[143] Eisenhower learned of the secretdevelopment of the atomic bomb weeks before theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki; he expressed opposition to the bombings on the grounds that the use of atomic weaponry would increase post-war tensions.[144]
Following the end of the World War II, Marshall retired in November 1945. On Marshall's recommendation, President Truman selected Eisenhower as the new Chief of Staff of the Army.[145] His main task in that role was the demobilization of millions of soldiers, but he also advised the president on military policy[146] and made numerous public appearances in order to maintain public support for the army.[147] Concerned that rapid demobilization would deprive the army of necessary manpower in its duties and fully return the military to its small, pre-war state, Eisenhower joined Truman in calling for some form of universal military service. Congress rejected the idea of universal service, though it did extend theSelective Training and Service Act of 1940.[148]
Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the newUnited Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, the administration of PresidentHarry S. Truman largely ignored senior military leaders in favor of the State Department. By mid-1947, as East–West tensions over economic recovery in Germany and theGreek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower had come to agree with thecontainment policy of stopping Soviet expansion.[146] Increasingly frustrated with his position of chief of staff, in 1948, he became the president ofColumbia University, anIvy League university in New York City.[149] Nonetheless, he continued to advise the military on various matters.[150] During his time at Columbia, he published his memoirs, which were titledCrusade in Europe.[151]
In June 1950, Communist-backedNorth Korea invaded U.S.-alignedSouth Korea, marking the start of theKorean War. The U.S. intervened on behalf of South Korea and inflicted several defeats on North Korean forces, but the war settled into a stalemate after thePeople's Republic of China committed forces to aid North Korea. Distressed by U.S. unpreparedness in the war, President Truman shook up his national security team and proposed dramatic increases in military spending.[152] He asked Eisenhower to make the public case for the importance of U.S. commitments toNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance of Western states that had been formed in 1949.[153] Though Eisenhower was unable to swayRobert A. Taft, a powerful Republican senator from Ohio, most other members of Congress agreed to support the alliance. In April 1951, after taking a leave of absence from Columbia, Eisenhower was confirmed by the Senate as the firstSupreme Commander of NATO. In this role, he was charged with forging a cohesive military force capable of standing up to a potential Soviet invasion.[154]
As Supreme Allied Commander, Eisenhower organized NATOs command structure and served as the alliance's public persona. Due to his notoriety and popular appeal, Eisenhower was the obvious choice to be the Republican candidate for president in 1952. Eisenhower was frequently approached by party leaders and asked to run for president. While he had his misgivings, he ultimately decided it was his duty to serve as president. When he decided to leave the Army and run for president in late May 1952, he was succeeded as Supreme Allied Commander by GeneralMatthew B. Ridgway, who had most recently served as United Nations commander in Korea.
Eisenhower emerged as a popular political figure in the post-war years, and was widely considered to be a presidential contender.[155] Along with Senator Robert A. Taft, Eisenhower emerged as one of the two major candidates in the1952 Republican presidential primaries.[156] After winning the 1952New Hampshire primary, Eisenhower resigned from his NATO command and returned to the United States. He went on to win the1952 presidential election, and served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.[157] Upon becoming a candidate for president, on 18 July 1952, he resigned his commission in the Army. After leaving office, by an act of Congress, he was restored to the rank of General of the Army on 30 March 1961.[158]
Eisenhower's contemporaries in the British and American militaries regarded him as an excellent administrator; Field Marshal Montgomery called him a "military statesman."[159] HistorianRussell Weigley ranked Eisenhower as the third-greatest U.S. Army leader afterGeorge Washington andUlysses S. Grant.[160] In developing this assessment, Weigley cited Eisenhower's World War II success at focusing on the strategic goal of a cross-Channel invasion to destroy the German Army, maturity of judgment with respect to operations and tactics, and military diplomacy that solidified the U.S.‑U.K. alliance and made possible America's wartime cooperation with the Soviet Union.[160]
While many contemporaries and historians rate Eisenhower's military leadership highly, he received his share of criticism, often regarding his lack of combat experience or supposed failure to understand military strategy.[161] Historian Adrian R. Lewis wrote that because Eisenhower lacked combat experience, he did not have the respect of his colleagues given to those who served in battle.[162] Field MarshalLord Alanbrooke wrote in his diary on 28 December 1942 that Eisenhower as a general was "hopeless. He submerges himself in politics and neglects his military duties, partly ... because he knows little if anything about military matters."[163] General of the Army Omar Bradley wrote that Eisenhower "had little grasp of sound battlefield tactics."[164] AdmiralJohn L. Hall Jr., the commander of Amphibious Force 'O', which landed the 1st Division at Omaha Beach, wrote that Eisenhower "was one of the most overrated men in military history."[165]
From December 1943 to November 1945, Eisenhower was "dual hatted" as commander of United States forces in Europe as well as commander of Allied armed forces.
Note: Sources vary as to titles and dates of assignment. The dates given above should be considered approximate.
Ribbons displayed as they would have been worn. Foreign decorations ordered by date awarded with national orders preceding military decorations and service medals. In cases when multiple decorations were conferred on the same date, the ribbons are ordered by relative precedence.
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No insignia | Cadet,United States Military Academy: 14 June 1911 |
No pin insignia in 1915 | Second Lieutenant,Regular Army: 12 June 1915 |
 | First Lieutenant, Regular Army: 1 July 1916 |
 | Captain, Regular Army: 15 May 1917 |
 | Major,National Army: 17 June 1918 |
 | Lieutenant Colonel, National Army: 20 October 1918 |
| Captain, Regular Army: 30 June 1920 (Reverted to permanent rank.) |
| Major, Regular Army: 2 July 1920 |
| Captain, Regular Army: 4 November 1922 (Discharged as major and appointed as captain due to reduction of Army.) |
| Major, Regular Army: 26 August 1924 |
| Lieutenant Colonel, Regular Army: 1 July 1936 |
 | Colonel,Army of the United States: 6 March 1941 |
 | Brigadier General, Army of the United States: 29 September 1941 |
 | Major General, Army of the United States: 27 March 1942 |
 | Lieutenant General, Army of the United States: 7 July 1942 |
 | General, Army of the United States: 11 February 1943 |
| Brigadier General, Regular Army: 30 August 1943 |
| Major General, Regular Army: 30 August 1943 |
 | General of the Army, Army of the United States: 20 December 1944 |
| General of the Army, Regular Army: 11 April 1946 |
Source: Official Register of Commissioned Officers of the United States Army, 1946. pg. 205.
Note: Eisenhower retired from the Army on 31 May 1952, and resigned his commission on 18 July 1952, to run for president. He left office as president on 20 January 1961, and was restored to active duty on 30 March 1961.[175]
| Military offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney | Commanding General of U.S. Army Europe 1942–1943 | Succeeded by Lt. Gen.Frank M. Andrews |
| Preceded by Gen.Jacob L. Devers | Commanding General of U.S. Army Europe 1944–1945 | Succeeded by |
| New title | Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany 1945 | Succeeded by Gen.George S. Patton |
| Preceded by Gen.George Marshall | Chief of Staff of the United States Army 1945–1948 | Succeeded by Gen.Omar Bradley |
| New title | Supreme Allied Commander Europe (NATO) 1951–1952 | Succeeded by Gen.Matthew Ridgway |
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