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Military Frontier Militärgrenze (German) | |
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| 1553–1881 | |
 Map of the Military Frontier (marked with a red outline) in 1800 | |
| Status | Militaryprovince |
| Religion | Catholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church |
| Historical era | Early Modern period |
• Established | 1553 |
• Disestablished | 1881 |
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TheMilitary Frontier[1] was aborderland of theHabsburg monarchy and later theAustrian andAustro-Hungarian Empire. It acted as thecordon sanitaire against incursions from theOttoman Empire.
The establishment of the new defense system inHungary andCroatia took place in the 16th century, following the election ofFerdinand I as king. Six districts under special military administration were established in Hungary and Croatia. TheCroatian Military Frontier and theSlavonian Military Frontier came under the jurisdiction of theCroatian Sabor andban. In 1627, they were placed under the direct control of the Habsburg military. For more than two centuries, they would retain complete civilian and military authority over the area, up to the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881.[2]
During the 17th century, the territory was expanded towards the east and new sections were created. By then, it stretched fromCroatia proper in the west to easternTransylvania in the east and included parts of present-dayCroatia,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Serbia,Romania andHungary. During this period, the defence system was also changed, from a conventional garrison model to one of 'soldier-settler' communities.
The inhabitants of the area were known as theGrenzer (or frontiersmen). They were mostly Serbian, Croatian, German, Vlach and other colonists.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][excessive citations] In exchange for land-grants, religious freedom and favorable tax rates, they colonized the area and served as the bulwark for themonarchy against Ottoman incursions. Germans had been recruited by Hungary in the late 18th century to resettle and develop the Danube River Valley, and became known asDonauschwaben. The military regiments formed by the settlers had a vested reason to stand and fight and were familiar with local terrain and conditions. They soon gained a formidable military reputation.
TheOttoman wars in Europe caused the border of theKingdom of Hungary – and subsequently that of theHabsburg monarchy – to shift towards the northwest. Much of the old Croatian territory either became Ottoman land or bordered the new Ottoman domain.
In 1435, in an attempt to strengthen the defences against the Ottomans and Venice, KingSigismund founded the so-calledtabor, a military encampment, each in Croatia, Slavonia andUsora. In 1463 KingMatthias Corvinus founded thebanovina ofJajce andSrebrenik, and in 1469 the military captaincy ofSenj, modeled after the Ottoman captaincies in theProvince of Bosnia. All these actions aimed to improve defence, but ultimately proved unsuccessful. But, they did lead to development of thePandur infantry and theHussar cavalry.
Soldiers known as "Martolos" and "Voynuks" were the most dangerous military element under Ottomans, whileVlachs andSerbs which fled from the Ottomans in the 15th century had a similar military tradition which Habsburgs began to use on their side of the border. Under the Habsburgs a special system of land ownership and military organization was created, i.e. a military frontier. This military border was an area of some major war campaigns, but mostly consisted of eternal clashes between the Ottoman and the Habsburg forces.[12]
After theCroatian Parliament elected theAustrian Habsburgs askings of Croatia in 1526,[13]Ferdinand I promised the Croatian Parliament that he would give them 200 cavalrymen and 200 infantrymen, and that he would pay for another 800 cavalrymen who would be commanded by the Croatians. Soon theHabsburg monarchy founded another captaincy inBihać. In the short term, all this was ineffective, as in 1529 the Ottomans swept through the area, capturedBuda and besiegedVienna, wreaking havoc throughout the Croatian border areas.
The Habsburgs aimed at holding the Ottoman forces on Hungarian and Croatian territory before they could reach Austria, but did not have a clear defense plan. In the 1530s, significant reinforcements were sent only to the most important forts on the border with the Ottoman Empire.[14] In the 1540s and following the Ottoman campaign of 1552, several conferences were held in which a new defense strategy was adopted. Separate defense zones were to be established in parts of Hungary and Croatia around the border forts. Austrian and Bohemian provinces were obligated to help finance this new system, beginning in the 1550s.[15] At the end of the 1560s, the new border system consisted of around 100–120 forts and extended from theAdriatic Sea toTransylvania. It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies (Grenzgeneralat):
In addition, there were four District Captain Generalcies (Kreisgeneralat).[17]
From the 1530s, immigration to the Military Frontier began to include a large number ofMartolos, Vlach military colonists and other irregulars who were part of the Ottoman military system, they were mostly Christians and some were Muslims.[18]
The new military expenditures became a considerable concern, and the Congress ofInner Austrian lands inBruck an der Mur in 1578 defined the obligations of each land in covering the military expenses and defined the priorities in improving the defensive strategy. It was determined that theDuchy of Styria will finance the Slavonian and Hungarian Frontiers, and theDuchy of Carniola will finance the Croatian Frontier. TheDuchy of Carinthia put their finances at the disposal of Styria and Carniola, to direct the money where needed.[19] In the 2nd half of the 16th century, there were around 20,000 troops stationed in Hungarian and Croatian border forts.[20]
By the end of the 16th century Slavicized Vlachs, otherVlachs andSerbs flee from Ottoman territory to Military Frontier andDalmatia.[4] At the same time the Croatian Military Frontier became known as theKarlovac generalate, and from the 1630s the Upper Slavonian Military Frontier was known as theVaraždingeneralat. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the military administration of the Frontier was moved away from the Croatianban and theSabor (Parliament) and instead instated in the high command ofArchduke Charles and theWar Council inGraz.[citation needed]
Despite the financial support of the Inner Austrian nobility, the financing of the Military Frontier was not efficient enough. The military leadership in Graz decided to try solutions other than mercenary units. In the 1630s the Imperial Court decided to give land and certain privileges to immigrants into the Frontier (theuskok guerrillas as well as refugees from Ottoman-controlled lands) at the area ofŽumberak. In return they would serve in the Imperial army. The remaining local population was also encouraged to remain by receiving the status of free peasants (rather thanserfs) and other privileges. These new units were organized into ten or morevoivodeships per each captaincy.
In 1627, the Military Frontier was removed from the control of the Croatian Sabor and put under direct rule of the Habsburg military. It would have complete civilian and military authority over it until abolition of the Military Frontiers.[21] In November 1630,Emperor Ferdinand II proclaimed the so-calledStatuta Valachorum ("Vlach Statute"),[22] which regulated the status of so-called Vlach settlers (which includedCroats,Serbs andVlachs) from the Ottoman Empire with regard to military command, their obligations, and rights to internal self-administration. Over time, the population of the Frontier (as it was then) became mixed between the autochthonousCroats and Croatian serfs who had fled the Ottoman territories, and the numerous minority of theSerb andVlach (who were later assimilated intoCroats andSerbs) refugees who strove to expand their rights as a major contributor in the defense of the land. By creating the new military class in the Frontier, the territory of the Frontier eventually became fully detached from the Croatian Parliament and theban. As freedom of faith was granted to them, they preserved their Orthodox faith in spite of their living in a Catholic country. Eventually, the whole male population of the Military Frontier became professional soldiers who served the Empire on several fronts and through many European wars, even after the relaxation of the Ottoman threat.
During the 17th century territory of the Military Frontier was expanded towards the East and new sections were created. By then, it stretched from Croatia in the west to easternTransylvania in the east and included parts of present-dayCroatia,Serbia,Romania andHungary.[23] The area was settled primarily with Croatian, Serbian and German colonists (known asgrenzer andgraničari) who, in return for land grants, served in the military units defending the empire against Ottomans.[23] The majority of immigrants were Serbs, and some were ethnic Croats, mainly from Bosnia.[24] Alarge migration of Serbs to Habsburg lands was undertaken by PatriarchArsenije III Čarnojević.[24] The large community of Serbs concentrated in Banat, southern Hungary, and the Military Frontier included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.[24]
The 17th century was a relatively peaceful period, during which only smaller raids were made from theProvince of Bosnia. After the Ottoman army was repelled at theBattle of Vienna in 1683, theGreat Turkish War ended with much of the former Croatian lands under Habsburg control. Despite this, the Frontier system was retained, and expanded onto former Ottoman territories inLika,Kordun,Banija, lowerSlavonia,Syrmia,Bačka,Banat,Pomorišje, andTransylvania. The Habsburg Empire valued the ability to centrally control the area and to draft cheap and numerous army units.
After theTreaty of Karlowitz of 1699, theSeressaner troops were established with both military and police duties. They were not paid, but were exempted from taxes. Over the following century, each regiment had one section of Seressaners that organized border patrols towards Bosnia, particularly on difficult terrain, and stopped incursions of bandits.[citation needed]
Orthodox Christians who settled Military Frontier from the Ottoman Empire were called in sources as "Vlachs schismatics" and Vlachs orUskoks, other names which are mentioned are "Valachi seu Rasciani" "Valachi seu Serviani", "Valachi seu Graeci", Vlachs orMorlachs, "Illirica gens graeci ritus" and "homines Ritus Ruthenici seu Graeci". During the 17th and first half of the 18th century Catholic natives and Catholics immigrated from Bosnia andKingdom of Croatia also converted to Orthodoxy. Most documents state that the Vlachs arriving "from Turkey" or "from Bosnia", ie theBosnia Eyalet.[25]
When in 1699 and 1718 the lands of Croatia and Hungary returned, which was previously occupied by the Ottomans, the vast majority of that area became the Military Frontier. Throughout the entire region of this frontier various ethnic groups were settled including Croats, Serbs, Albanians and others which were also all together called Vlachs.[26] From 1718 to 1739 the Military Frontier also included the Habsburg-controlled northern parts of present-dayBosnia and Herzegovina.[27] In the mid-18th century the Frontier was once again reorganized and modelled after the Imperial army and its regular regiments. In 1737 the Vlach Statute was formally abolished. All previous captaincies and voivodships were discarded, and the area was instead subdivided into general-commands, regiments (Serbo-Croatian:pukovnije) and companies:
After 1767, every twelfth inhabitant of the Military Frontier was a soldier – in contrast to every 62nd inhabitant in the rest of the Habsburg Monarchy. The Frontier soldiers became a professional military, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, Bačka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. SomeGermans,Poles,Magyars andSlovaks also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire –Czechs,Poles,Slovaks,Ukrainians,Rusyns and others.
In 1783 the Croatian and Slavonian frontiers came under the unified control of the Croatian General Command headquartered inZagreb.[28][29][30]
TheSerbian Free Corps of 5,000 soldiers had been established in Banat, composed of refugees who had fled earlier conflicts in the Ottoman Empire.[31] The Corps would fight for the liberation of Serbia and for unification under Habsburg rule.[31] Severalfreikorps operated along the Habsburg-Ottoman frontier.[32] The Austrians used the Corps in two failed attempts to seize Belgrade, in late 1787 and in early 1788.[31]
Serbia was subsequently liberated, and organized intoa Habsburg protectorate. On 8 October 1789Ernst Gideon von Laudontook over Belgrade. Austrian forces occupied Serbia, and many Serbs fought in the Habsburg free corps, gaining organizational and military skills.[33] By 1791, however, the Austrians were forced into withdrawal across theDanube andSava rivers, joined by thousands of Serb families who feared Ottoman persecution. TheTreaty of Sistova (1791) ended theAustro-Turkish War of 1787.
In 1787 the civil administration became separate from the military, but this was reversed in 1800.
By the end of the 18th century, it had already become apparent for some time that the Ottomanswere on the decline and were not likely to attempt any further invasions north of the Sava River. The Military Frontier thus began to outlive its usefulness. In 1848,Josip Jelačić,Ban of Croatia, became the commander of the Military Frontier. He pressed for the unification of Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, and the Croatian-Slavonian Frontier. Although he did not have the power to abolish it, he secured approval for reforms and in 1848 the Military Frontier sent representatives to the Croatian Sabor,[34] however, this was revoked in the 1850s.[35] From 1850 the Frontier, Croatia and Slavonia formally constituted a single land, but with separate administration and representation.[36] The whole area of Military Frontier was under military administration. All population, regardless of age and sex, belonged to the army and was subject to Austrian military legislation.[37] The Main Command had its headquarters inZagreb, but remained directly subordinate to the Ministry of War in Vienna.
The Croatian Parliament made numerous pleas to demilitarize the Frontier after the Turkish wars subsided. The demilitarization began in 1869 and on 8 August 1873, underFranz Joseph, theBanat Frontier was abolished and incorporated into theKingdom of Hungary, while part of theCroatian Frontier (Križevci and Đurđevac regiments) was already incorporated intoCroatia-Slavonia on 1 August 1871. The decree in which the rest of the Croatian andSlavonian frontiers were incorporated into Croatia-Slavonia was proclaimed on 15 July 1881, while incorporation began on 1 August 1881, whenBan of CroatiaLadislav Pejačević took over from the Zagreb General Command.[38]
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the frontier was divided into several districts:
| Division | Period | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Danube Military Frontier | 1702–1751 | Comprised parts of southernBačka (includingPalanka,Petrovac,Petrovaradinski Šanac,Titel, etc.) and northernSyrmia (includingPetrovaradin,Šid, etc.). After the abolishment of this section of the Frontier, one part of its territory was placed under civil administration and another part was joined with other sections of the Frontier. |
| Tisa Military Frontier | 1702–1751 | Comprised parts of north-easternBačka (includingSombor,Subotica,Kanjiža,Senta,Bečej, etc.). After the abolishment of this section of the Frontier, most of its territory was placed under civil administration, while one small area in the south remained under military administration as part of theŠajkaš Battalion. |
| Mureș Military Frontier | 1702–1751 | This frontier included the region ofPomorišje, the area on the northern bank of the river Mureș. After the abolishment of this section, its entire territory was placed under civil administration. |
| Sava Military Frontier | 1702–1751 | It was located along the Sava river. |
| Banat Military Frontier | 1751–1873 | It was located on the present-daySerbian-Romanian border. It was divided intoSerbian (Illyrian),German (Volksdeutscher) andRomanian (Vlach) sections. |
| Slavonian Military Frontier | 1745–1881 | It was located alongPosavina, from easternCroatia, following the riverSava, along the border withBosnia-Herzegovina andSerbia, and stretched intoSyrmia, until inflow into Danube nearZemun (today part ofBelgrade). Its north-eastern border followed theDanube up until thePetrovaradin. |
| Croatian Military Frontier | 1553–1881 | It was located on the border of Croatia andBosnia. This part of the Military Frontier included the geographic regions ofLika,Kordun,Banovina (named after "Banska krajina"), and bordered theAdriatic Sea to the west,Venetian Republic to the south, Habsburg Croatia to the west, and the Ottoman Empire to the east. It extended onto theSlavonian Military Frontier near the confluence of the riversUna andSava. |
| Šajkaš Battalion | 1763–1873 | It was a small part of the Frontier that was formed in 1763 from parts of the previously abolished Danube and Tisa sections of the frontier. In 1852, Šajkaš battalion was transformed into Titel infantry battalion. It was abolished in 1873, and its territory was incorporated into Bačka-Bodrog County. |
| Transylvanian Military Frontier | 1762–1851 | It was located in the eastern and southern parts ofTransylvania. It was composed of twoSzékely and twoRomanian regiments. The establishment of the frontier was followed by theMádéfalva Massacre orSiculicidium. |
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In 1828 the population included:[39]
An Austrian statistical yearbook for 1846 notes that 1,226,408 residents lived in the Military Frontier:[40]
The first modern population census in the Austrian Empire was conducted in 1857 and recorded the religion of the population. The population of the Military Frontier numbered 1,062,072 inhabitants,[41] while the religious structure of the Military Frontier was:
Population data by divisions:
Croatian-Slavonian Military Frontier (Total 675,817)[42]
Banat Military Frontier (Total 386,255)[43]
Many Serbs emigrated northwards into the southern regions of Hungary during the period when the territory of Serbia was largely under Ottoman rule. In order to attract Serbs into Hungary, emperorLeopold I decreed that they would be allowed to elect their own ruler, orVojvoda, from which the nameVojvodina derives. In 1690, about 30,000 to 70,000 Serbs settled eastern Slavonia, Bačka and Banat in what became known as theGreat Serbian Migrations. Later the Habsburgs did not allow Serbs to elect their own vojvoda; they incorporated the region into the military frontiers of eastern Slavonia and the Banat. However, the strong Serb presence in the region resulted in Vojvodina serving as the cradle of theSerbian renaissance during the 19th century.[23]
From October 1990, eight months before Croatiadeclared independence (June 25, 1991) fromYugoslavia, the Serbs who lived in the region of the former Military Frontier (Vojna Krajina) started aninsurrection and adopted the name (Krajina) for their unrecognisedRepublic of Serbian Krajina. The occupied territory was largely identical to that of the Military Frontier,[44] however also including some territories that were never a part of former Military Frontier, such as northernDalmatia with town ofKnin. Other territories that had constituted the Military Frontier remained under control ofRepublic of Croatia. Croatian forces regained control over Serb occupied territories afterOperation Storm in 1995.
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