Miletus (Ancient Greek:Μίλητος,romanised: Mílētos) was an influential ancient Greek city on the western coast ofAnatolia, near the mouth of theMaeander River in present dayTurkey. Renowned in antiquity for its wealth, maritime power, and extensive network of colonies, Miletus was a major center of trade, culture, and innovation from theBronze Age through theRoman period. The city played a foundational role in the development of earlyGreek philosophy and science, serving as the home of theMilesian school with thinkers such asThales,Anaximander, andAnaximenes.
Miletus's prosperity was closely linked to its strategic coastal location and the productivity of its surrounding rural hinterland, which supported thriving agriculture and facilitated wide-ranging commercial activity. The city established dozens of colonies around theMediterranean andBlack Sea, significantly shaping theGreek world’s expansion.
Archaeological investigations have revealed a rich material culture, including the sanctuary ofApollo atDidyma, remnants of the city's distinctive grid plan, and evidence of long-term agricultural and rural management. Throughout its history, Miletus experienced periods of autonomy and foreign rule, serving as a cultural crossroads betweenGreek,Anatolian, and laterPersian andRoman spheres. The city’s enduring legacy is reflected in its contributions to philosophy, urban planning, and the spread of Greek civilization.
The earliest available archaeological evidence indicates that the islands on which Miletus was originally placed were inhabited by aNeolithic population in 3500–3000 BC.[4] Pollen in core samples from Lake Bafa in theLatmus region inland of Miletus suggests that a lightly grazed climax forest prevailed in theMaeander valley, otherwise untenanted. Sparse Neolithic settlements were made atsprings, numerous and sometimesgeothermal in this karst, rift valley topography. The islands offshore were settled perhaps for their strategic significance at the mouth of the Maeander, a route inland protected byescarpments. Thegraziers in the valley may have belonged to them, but the location looked to the sea.
The prehistoric archaeology of the Early and Middle Bronze Age portrays a city heavily influenced by society and events elsewhere in the Aegean, rather than inland.
The earliest Minoan settlement of Miletus dates to 2000 BC.[5] Beginning at about 1900 BC artifacts of theMinoan civilization acquired by trade arrived at the site.[4] For some centuries the location received a strong impulse from that civilization, an archaeological fact that tends to support but not necessarily confirm the founding legend—that is, a population influx fromCrete. According toStrabo:[6]
Ephorus says: Miletus was first founded and fortified above the sea by Cretans, where the Miletus of olden times is now situated, being settled by Sarpedon, who brought colonists from the Cretan Miletus and named the city after that Miletus, the place formerly being in possession of theLeleges.
According toPausanias, however, Miletus was a friend of Sarpedon fromCrete, after whom the city was named.[7] Miletus had a son named Kelados, and theheroon of Kelados has been found at Panormos, a port of Miletus nearDidyma.[8]
The legends recounted as history by the ancient historians and geographers are perhaps the strongest; the late mythographers have nothing historically significant to relate.[9]
Miletus is then mentioned in the "Tawagalawa letter", part of a series including theManapa-Tarhunta letter and theMilawata letter, all of which are less securely dated. The Tawagalawa letter notes that Milawata had a governor,Atpa, who was under the jurisdiction ofAhhiyawa (a growing state probably inLHIIIBMycenaean Greece); and that the town ofAtriya was under Milesian jurisdiction. The Manapa-Tarhunta letter also mentions Atpa. Together the two letters tell that the adventurerPiyama-Radu had humiliated Manapa-Tarhunta before Atpa (in addition to other misadventures); a Hittite king then chased Piyama-Radu into Millawanda and, in the Tawagalawa letter, requested Piyama-Radu's extradition toHatti.
The Milawata letter mentions a joint expedition by the Hittite king and aLuwian vassal (probablyKupanta-Kurunta of Mira) against Miletus, and notes that the city (together with Atriya) was now under Hittite control.[citation needed]
In the last stage of LHIIIB, the citadel of Bronze AgePylos counted among its female slaves a mi-ra-ti-ja,Mycenaean Greek for "women from Miletus", written inLinear B syllabic script.[14]
Mythographers told that Neleus, a son ofCodrus the lastKing of Athens, had come to Miletus after the "Return of the Heraclids" (so, during theGreek Dark Ages). Aheroon for Neleus was allegedly located outside of the city wall of Roman Miletus, which probably marks the former city center contemporary to Neleus.[15][8] The Ionians killed the men of Miletus and married theirCarian widows. This is the mythical commencement of the enduring alliance between Athens and Miletus, which played an important role in the subsequentPersian Wars.
Miletus is known to have early ties withMegara in Greece. According to some scholars, these two cities had built up a "colonisation alliance". In the 7th/6th century BC they acted in accordance with each other.[16]
Both cities acted under the leadership and sanction of anApollo oracle. Megara cooperated with that ofDelphi. Miletus had her own oracle of ApolloDidymeus Milesios inDidyma. Also, there are many parallels in the political organisation of both cities.[16]
According toPausanias, the Megarians said that their town owed its origin toCar, the son ofPhoroneus, who built the city citadel called 'Caria'.[17] This 'Car of Megara' may or may not be one and the same as the 'Car of the Carians', also known asCar (King of Caria).
In the late 7th century BC, the tyrantThrasybulus preserved the independence of Miletus during a 12-year war fought against theLydian Empire.[18] Thrasybulus was an ally of the famousCorinthian tyrantPeriander.
Miletus was an important center of philosophy and science, producing such men asThales,Anaximander andAnaximenes. Referring to this period,religious studies professorF. E. Peters describedpan-deism as "the legacy of the Milesians".[19] As well as being a philosopher,Thales was also suggested to have initiated the famous grid plan of the city.[8] An archaic orthogonal street system at Miletus has been confirmed by archaeological survey, but this system would not cover the entire urban center of Miletus until the classical period.[20]
By the 6th century BC, Miletus had earned a maritime empire with many colonies, mainly scattered around theBlack Sea. Miletus and its numerous colonies were culturally tied by, for example, the cult ofAphrodite, a deity associated with seafaring in the cultural context of Miletus. However, its maritime hegemony declined as a result of the Persian occupation in the early fourth century BC, and the vacuum of power was later filled byAthens.[21]
WhenCyrus of Persia defeatedCroesus of Lydia in the middle of the 6th century BC, Miletus fell underPersian rule. In 499 BC, Miletus'styrantAristagoras became the leader of theIonian Revolt against the Persians, who, underDarius the Great, quashed this rebellion in theBattle of Lade in 494 BC and punished Miletus by selling all of the women and children into slavery, killing the men, and expelling all of the young men as eunuchs, thereby assuring that no Miletus citizen would ever be born again. A year afterward,Phrynicus produced the tragedyThe Capture of Miletus in Athens. The Athenians fined him for reminding them of their loss.[22]
In 479 BC, the Greeks decisively defeated the Persians on the Greek mainland at theBattle of Plataea, and Miletus was freed from Persian rule. Although many sanctuaries of Miletus had been destroyed by the Persians, the restoration of them was prohibited by the "Oath of the Ionians", which aimed to retain the ruins as memorials. However, this oath was only partially observed by the Milesians, with some sanctuaries being restored back to their Archaic appearances.[23] The city's gridlike layout was also constructed across all the area within the city wall, designed byHippodamus of Miletus. It later became famous and was known as the "Hippodamian plan", serving as the basic layout for the new foundations of Hellenistic andRoman cities.[20]
In 358 BC, Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by his sonArtaxerxes III, who, in 355 BC, forced Athens to conclude a peace, which required its forces to leave Asia Minor (Anatolia) and acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.[citation needed]
In 334 BC, theSiege of Miletus by the forces ofAlexander the Great of Macedonia conquered the city. The conquest of most of the rest of Asia Minor soon followed. In this period, the city reached its greatest extent, occupying within its walls an area of approximately 90 hectares (220 acres).[24]
When Alexander died in 323 BC, Miletus came under the control of Ptolemy, governor ofCaria, and his satrap of Lydia,Asander, who had become autonomous.[25] In 312 BC, Macedonian generalAntigonus I Monophthalmus sent Docimus and Medeius to free the city and grant autonomy, restoring the democratic patrimonial regime. In 301 BC, after Antigonus I was killed in theBattle of Ipsus by the coalition ofLysimachus,Cassander, andSeleucus I Nicator, founder of theSeleucid Empire, Miletus maintained good relations with all the successors after Seleucus I Nicator made substantial donations to the sanctuary of Didyma and returned the statue of Apollo that had been stolen by the Persians in 494 BC.
In 295 BC, Antigonus I's sonDemetrius Poliorcetes was the eponymous archon (stephanephorus) in the city, which allied withPtolemy I Soter of Egypt, while Lysimachus assumed power in the region, enforcing a strict policy towards the Greek cities by imposing high taxes, forcing Miletus to resort to lending.
Around 287/286 BC Demetrius Poliorcetes returned, but failed to maintain his possessions and was imprisoned in Syria. Nicocles of Sidon, the commander of Demetrius' fleet surrendered the city. Lysimachus dominated until 281 BC, when he was defeated by the Seleucids at theBattle of Corupedium. In 280/279 BC the Milesians adopted a new chronological system based on the Seleucids.
In 279 BC, the city was taken from Seleucid kingAntiochus II by Egyptian kingPtolemy II Philadelphus, who donated a large area of land to cement their friendship, and it remained under Egyptian sway until the end of the century.[26]
After an alliance with Rome, in 133 BC the city became part of the province of Asia.
Miletus benefited from Roman rule and most of the present monuments date to this period.
TheNew Testament mentions Miletus as the site where the ApostlePaul in 57 AD met the elders of thechurch ofEphesus near the close of his Third Missionary Journey, as recorded inActs of the Apostles (Acts 20:15–38). It is believed that Paul stopped by the Great Harbour Monument and sat on its steps. He might have met the Ephesian elders there and then bade them farewell on the nearby beach. Miletus is also the city where Paul leftTrophimus, one of his travelling companions, to recover from an illness (2 Timothy 4:20). Because this cannot be the same visit as Acts 20 (in which Trophimus accompanied Paul all the way to Jerusalem, according to Acts 21:29), Paul must have made at least one additional visit to Miletus, perhaps as late as 65 or 66 AD. Paul's previous successful three-year ministry in nearbyEphesus resulted in the evangelization of the entire province of Asia (see Acts 19:10, 20;1 Corinthians 16:9). It is safe to assume that at least by the time of the apostle's second visit to Miletus, a fledgling Christian community was established in Miletus.
In 262 new city walls were built.
However the harbour was silting up and the economy was in decline. In 538 emperorJustinian rebuilt the walls but it had become a small town.
During theByzantine age thesee of Miletus was raised to an archbishopric and later ametropolitan bishopric. The small Byzantine castle called Palation located on the hill beside the city, was built at this time. Miletus was headed by acurator.[27][28]
An Ottoman mosque from the Turkish period at the Miletus site
Seljuk Turks conquered the city in the 14th century and used Miletus as a port to trade withVenice.
In the 15th century, theOttomans utilized the city as a harbour during their rule inAnatolia. As the harbour became silted up, the city was abandoned. Due to ancient and subsequentdeforestation,[29]overgrazing (mostly by goat herds),erosion andsoil degradation, the ruins of the city lie some 10 km (6.2 mi) from the sea withsediments filling the plain and bare hill ridges without soils and trees, amaquis shrubland remaining.
The first excavations in Miletus were conducted by the French archaeologistOlivier Rayet in 1873, followed by the German archaeologistsJulius Hülsen andTheodor Wiegand[30][31][32] between 1899 and 1931.Excavations, however, were interrupted several times by wars and various other events.Carl Weickart excavated for a short season in 1938 and again between 1955 and 1957.[33][34][35]He was followed by Gerhard Kleiner and then by Wolfgang Muller-Wiener.Today, excavations are organized by theRuhr University ofBochum,Germany.
One remarkable artifact recovered from the city during the first excavations of the 19th century, theMarket Gate of Miletus, was transported piece by piece to Germany and reassembled. It is currently exhibited at thePergamon Museum inBerlin. The main collection of artifacts resides in theMiletus Museum inDidim,Aydın, serving since 1973.
Archaeologists discovered a cave under the city's theatre and believe that it is a "sacred" cave which belonged to the cult ofAsklepius.[36][37]
The name Fikellura derives from a site on the island of Rhodes to which this fabric has been attributed. It is now established that the center of production was Miletus.
The ruins appear on satellite maps at 37°31.8'N 27°16.7'E, about 3 km north ofBalat and 3 km east ofBatıköy inAydın Province,Turkey.
In antiquity the city possessed aharbor at the southern entry of a large bay, on which two more of the traditional twelve Ionian cities stood:Priene andMyus. The harbor of Miletus was additionally protected by the nearby small island of Lade. Over the centuries the gulf silted up withalluvium carried by theMeander River. Priene and Myus had lost their harbors by the Roman era, and Miletus itself became an inland town in the early Christian era; all three were abandoned to ruin as their economies were strangled by the lack of access to the sea. There is a Great Harbor Monument where, according to the New Testament account, the apostle Paul stopped on his way back to Jerusalem by boat. He met the Ephesian Elders and then headed out to the beach to bid them farewell, recorded in the book of Acts 20:17-38.
During thePleistocene epoch the Miletus region was submerged in theAegean Sea. It subsequently emerged slowly, the sea reaching a low level of about 130 meters (430 ft) below present level at about 18,000 BP. The site of Miletus was part of the mainland.
A gradual rise brought a level of about 1.75 meters (5 ft 9 in) below present at about 5500 BP, creating severalkarst block islands of limestone, the location of the first settlements at Miletus. At about 1500 BC the karst shifted due to small crustal movements and the islands consolidated into a peninsula. Since then the sea has risen 1.75 m but the peninsula has been surrounded by sediment from theMaeander river and is now land-locked. Sedimentation of the harbor began at about 1000 BC, and by 300 ADLake Bafa had been created.[38]
The economic prosperity of Miletus during theArchaic andClassical periods depended heavily on its rural hinterland. Archaeological surveys and remote sensing analyses have revealed systems of terraces, field boundaries, and enclosures across the Milesian peninsula. These are interpreted as evidence of long-standing agro-pastoral activity, possibly dating as far back as the Archaic period and extending intoLate Antiquity.[39]
Herodotus, describing the tactics ofAlyattes against the Milesian countryside, writes: "He sent his army, marching to the sound of pipes and harps and bass and treble flutes, to invade when the crops in the land were ripe; and whenever he came to the Milesian territory, he neither demolished nor burnt nor tore the doors off the country dwellings, but let them stand unharmed; but he destroyed the trees and the crops of the land, and so returned to where he came from; for as the Milesians had command of the sea, it was of no use for his army to besiege their city. The reason that the Lydian did not destroy the houses was this: that the Milesians might have homes from which to plant and cultivate their land, and that there might be the fruit of their toil for his invading army to lay waste."[40]
These rural systems supported olive cultivation, animal herding, and small-scale farming. Faunal remains suggest that herding was a major component of the rural economy. Excavations have shown a predominance of goat bones over sheep, possibly reflecting the influence ofCretan animal husbandry techniques adopted in early Miletus.[41]
Strabo, citingEphorus, relates: "Miletus was first founded and fortified by the Cretans on the spot above the sea-coast where at present the ancient Miletus is situated, and thatSarpedon conducted thither settlers from the Miletus in Crete, and gave it the same name; thatLeleges were the former occupiers of the country, and that afterwardsNeleus built the present city."[42]
Farmsteads, oil presses, cisterns, and possible pastoral installations such as shepherding stations have been identified in the countryside, suggesting a decentralized but productive economy.[43] The northern plains and Maeander valley, both under Milesian control, were especially fertile, providing grain and supporting livestock crucial to the city’s sustenance and export economy.[44]
In addition to grain and wool, Miletus likely exported surplus olive oil during favorable years. Archaic Milesianamphorae, widely distributed and characterized by thickened rims, may have been used for oil transport.[45]
Botanical evidence from the Milesian countryside also reveals the cultivation of figs and lentils. Carbonized fig remains have been found in large numbers, and fig trees were likely common along field margins, significantly influencing the diet in the region.[46]
Both literary and archaeological evidence demonstrate that Miletus’ agricultural base was essential for sustaining its urban population, supporting rural life, and providing the surpluses that underpinned Milesian colonization and trade.
Map of the Black Sea, featuring the chronological phasing of major Milesian colonial foundations
Miletus became known for the great number of colonies it founded. It was considered the greatest Greek metropolis and founded more colonies than any other Greek city.Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 5.31) says that Miletus founded over 90 colonies.
The extent of Milesian colonization was shaped by a convergence of economic, social, and political factors. Like other Greekpoleis, Miletus faced pressures from population growth and competition for arable land, which drove many citizens to seek new opportunities overseas. Economic motivations included expanding trade networks and accessing new resources, especially along the Black Sea coast, which offered grain, fish, and raw materials not easily available inIonia. Political factors, such asstasis (internal conflict) and the impact of foreign powers likeLydia andPersia, also contributed, sometimes prompting groups or exiles to establish new settlements abroad. Scholars note that Milesian colonization was characterized both by “proactive” ventures seeking commercial gain and “reactive” migrations resulting from disruptions at home.[47][48][49]
The Black Sea region became a primary focus of Milesian colonial expansion from the seventh century BCE onward. Milesian foundations such asSinope,Olbia, andPanticapaeum quickly grew into major trading hubs and centers for the exchange of goods between Greeks and indigenous populations. These colonies enabled Miletus to dominate regional commerce in grain, fish, and slaves, contributing significantly to the city’s wealth. The choice of the Black Sea also reflected both strategies to exploit new resources and responses to population and political pressures in Ionia.[50][51][52]
Sinope, located on the southern coast of the Black Sea, was one of the earliest and most prosperous Milesian colonies, traditionally founded in the late seventh century BCE.[53]
Olbia, on the northwestern Black Sea coast, likewise became a major economic center, especially for grain exports to the Greek world.[54][55]
Milesian colonization not only expanded the city’s economic and political reach, but also established enduring cultural connections across the Mediterranean and Black Sea, with many settlements continuing to thrive and influence local societies for centuries.[56][57]
While some Milesian colonies ultimately declined or were absorbed by neighboring powers, many—such as Sinope and Olbia—remained prominent centers of trade andHellenic culture well into theHellenistic and Roman periods. The archaeological remains and historical records of these colonies continue to shed light on the reach and legacy of Milesian influence throughout antiquity.[58][59][60]
Miletus played a foundational role in the origins of Western philosophical inquiry. In the 6th century BCE, thinkers such asThales,Anaximander, andAnaximenes—collectively known as theMilesian school—began to investigate the material basis of the cosmos through rational, systematic inquiry rather than mythological narrative.[61]
Aristotle records that, “Thales, the founder of this kind of philosophy, stated it to be water. (This is why he declared that the earth rests on water.) …water is the principle of the nature of moist things.”[62] Aristotle further notes, “Some say [the earth] rests on water. This is the oldest account that we have inherited, and they say that Thales of Miletus said this. It rests because it floats like wood or some other such thing…for nothing is by nature such as to rest on air, but on water.”[63]
Thales’ student Anaximander introduced the concept of theapeiron (the infinite or indefinite) as a more abstract source of existence. According to Aristotle (viaSimplicius): “Anaximander… said that the apeiron was the arkhē and element of things that are, and he was the first to introduce this name for the arkhē. …He says that the arkhē is neither water nor any of the other things called elements, but some other nature which is apeiron, out of which come to be all the heavens and the worlds in them. The things that are perish into the things from which they come to be, according to necessity, for they pay penalty and retribution to each other for their injustice in accordance with the ordering of time, as he says in rather poetical language.”[64] Aristotle also states that for Anaximander, the apeiron “is deathless and indestructible…for it is divine.”[65]
Anaximenes, in turn, posited air (aēr) as the basic element, suggesting it could transform into other forms of matter through rarefaction and condensation: “Anaximenes… declared that air is the underlying principle and that all the rest come to be from it by rarefaction and condensation. Fire, when air is rarefied; wind, then cloud, when condensed; water, then earth, then stones, and the rest come into being from these.”[66]
The emergence of this rational mode of thinking was likely influenced by Miletus’s cosmopolitanism and its contact with the ancient cultures of theNear East.[67] These intellectual foundations laid the groundwork for later developments in Greek philosophy and science.
Miletus had several significant religious institutions, the most important of which was the sanctuary ofApollo atDidyma, located roughly 18 kilometers south of the city. The sanctuary was connected to the city by a ceremonial road known as theSacred Way, which served as a route for ritual processions and pilgrimage festivals.[68]
Didyma was renowned for its oracle, second in prestige only to that ofDelphi. Prophecies were delivered by a priestess within a richly adorned temple complex. Archaeological discoveries along the Sacred Way have uncovered rows of consecrated statues and inscriptions, often commissioned by Milesian elites and foreign notables.[69]
The sanctuary was a hub for both religion and politics, reinforcing Miletus’ influence withinIonia and the widerAegean. Religious practices at Didyma, including oracular consultation and ritual dedication, reflected and shaped the city’s cultural identity and its connections with other Ionian communities.
Thales of Miletus was a Greek mathematician, astronomer and pre-Socratic philosopher from the city. He is otherwise historically recognized as the first individual known to have entertained and engaged in scientific philosophy.
^Alan M. Greaves (25 April 2002).Miletos: A History. Taylor & Francis. pp. 71–.ISBN978-0-203-99393-4.The political history of Miletos/Millawanda, as it can be reconstructed from limited sources, shows that despite having a material culture dominated by Aegean influences it was more often associated with Anatolian powers such as Arzawa and the Hittites than it was with the presumed Aegean power of Ahhijawa
^Sharon R. Steadman; Gregory McMahon; John Gregory McMahon (15 September 2011).The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE).Oxford University Press. p. 369 and 608.ISBN978-0-19-537614-2.They had certainly been familiar with the territory earlier, in the Late Bronze Age, by way of commercial and political interests, and perhaps even trading posts, but now they came to stay. In the case of such settlements as Miletus and Ephesus, as implied, the Greeks chose the sites of former Anatolian cities of prominence.
^The late fantasy fiction ofAntoninus Liberalis,Metamorphoses XXX 1–2 after Nicander, can be safely disregarded as being in any way history. His entertaining tales have the imaginary character namedMiletus fleeingCrete to avoid being forced to become theeromenos of KingMinos. He founds the city only after slaying a giant named Asterius, son ofAnax, after whom the region known as Miletus was called 'Anactoria', "place of Anax".Anax in Greek means "the king" andAsterius is "starry".
^abWeber, B (2007). "Der Stadtplan von Milet". In Cobet, J; von Graeve, V; Niemeier, W.D.; Zimmermann, A (eds.).Frühes Ionien. Eine Bestandsaufnahme. Mainz am Rhein. pp. 327–362.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Greaves, Alan M., ed. (2002).Miletos: a history. London New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-203-99393-4.
^Chant, Colin (1999)."Greece". In Chant, Colin; Goodman, David (eds.).Pre-industrial Cities and Technology. London: Routledge. p. 61.ISBN9780415200752.
^The Byzantine aristocracy and its military function, Volume 859 of the Variorum collected studies series, Jean-Claude Cheynet, Ashgate Pub., 2006.ISBN978-0-7546-5902-0
^Studies in Byzantine Sigillography, Volume 10, Jean-Claude Cheynet, Claudia Sode, published by Walter de Gruyter, 2010.ISBN978-3-11-022704-8
^Olivier Rayet and Thomas, Milet Et Le Golfe Latmique, Fouilles Et Explorations Archeologiques Publ, 1877 (reprint Nabu Press 2010ISBN1-141-62992-5
^Theodor Wiegand and Julius Hülsen [Das Nymphaeum von Milet, Museen zu Berlin 1919] and Kurt Krausem, Die Milesische Landschaft, Milet II, vol. 2, Schoetz, 1929
^Theodor Wiegand et al., Der Latmos, Milet III, vol. 1, G. Reimer, 1913
^Carl Weickert, Grabungen in Milet 1938, Bericht über den VI internationalen Kongress für Archäologie, pp. 325-332, 1940
^Carl Weickert, Die Ausgrabung beim Athena-Tempel in Milet 1955, Istanbuler Mitteilungen, Deutsche Archaeologische Institut, vol. 7, pp.102-132, 1957
^Carl Weickert, Neue Ausgrabungen in Milet,Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im Mittelmeergebiet und im Vorderen Orient, pp. 181-96, 1959
^Wilkinson, Toby C., and Anja Slawisch. "An Agro-Pastoral Palimpsest: New Insights into the Historical Rural Economy of the Milesian Peninsula."Anatolian Studies, vol. 70, 2020, p. 15.
^Wilkinson, Toby C., and Anja Slawisch. "An Agro-Pastoral Palimpsest: New Insights into the Historical Rural Economy of the Milesian Peninsula."Anatolian Studies, vol. 70, 2020, pp. 2–3.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 23.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 27.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 30.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 74–78.
^Knight, John Brendan.The proactive and reactive stimuli of Archaic Milesian colonisation in the Black Sea before 494 B.C.E. The Open University, 2012, pp. 27–43.
^Sacks, David.Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File, 2005, p. 97.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 104–107.
^Knight, John Brendan.The proactive and reactive stimuli of Archaic Milesian colonisation in the Black Sea before 494 B.C.E. The Open University, 2012, pp. 27–43.
^Sacks, David.Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File, 2005, p. 97.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 104–107.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 104–107.
^Knight, John Brendan.The proactive and reactive stimuli of Archaic Milesian colonisation in the Black Sea before 494 B.C.E. The Open University, 2012, pp. 27–43.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 74–78.
^Sacks, David.Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File, 2005, p. 97.
^Wilkinson, Toby C., and Anja Slawisch. "An Agro-Pastoral Palimpsest: New Insights into the Historical Rural Economy of the Milesian Peninsula."Anatolian Studies, vol. 70, 2020, pp. 1–26.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 74–78.
^Sacks, David.Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File, 2005, p. 97.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 4–5.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 117.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 118; Loy, Michael S., and Anja Slawisch. "Shedding Light on the Matter: Dedications and Ritual Change in Ionia during the Ionian Revolt."Journal of Greek Archaeology, vol. 6, 2021, p. 117.
^Greaves, Alan M.Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 118.
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