With qualifiers,mile is also used to describe or translate a wide range of units derived from or roughly equivalent to theRoman mile (roughly1.48 km), such as thenautical mile (now1.852 km exactly), theItalian mile (roughly1.852 km), and theChinese mile (now500 m exactly). The Romans divided their mile into 5,000pedēs ("feet"), but the greater importance of furlongs in theElizabethan-era England meant that thestatute mile was made equivalent to8furlongs or5,280feet in 1593. This form of the mile then spread across theBritish Empire, some successor states of which continue to employ the mile. TheUS Geological Survey now employs the metre for official purposes, but legacy data from its1927 geodetic datum has meant that a separateUS survey mile(6336/3937 km) continues to see some use, although it was officially phased out in 2022. While most countries replaced the mile with the kilometre when switching to theInternational System of Units (SI), the international mile continues to be used in some countries, such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and a number of countries with fewer than one million inhabitants, most of which are UK or US territories or have close historical ties with the UK or US.
The presentinternational mile is usually what is understood by the unqualified termmile. When this distance needs to be distinguished from the nautical mile, the international mile may also be described as a land mile or statute mile.[2] InBritish English,statute mile may refer to the present international mile or to any other form ofEnglish mile since the1593 Act of Parliament, which set it as a distance of1,760 yards. UnderAmerican law, however,statute mile refers to the US survey mile.[3] Foreign and historical units translated into English asmiles usually employ a qualifier to describe the kind of mile being used but this may be omitted if it is obvious from the context, such as a discussion of the 2nd-centuryAntonine Itinerary describing its distances in terms ofmiles rather thanRoman miles.
The mile has been variously abbreviated in English—with and without a trailing period—as "mi", "M", "ml", and "m".[4] The AmericanNational Institute of Standards and Technology now uses and recommends "mi" to avoid confusion with the SI metre (m) and millilitre (ml).[5] However, derived units such asmiles per hour ormiles per gallon continue to be abbreviated as "mph" and "mpg" rather than "mi/h" and "mi/gal". In the United Kingdom,road signs use "m" as the abbreviation for mile though height and width restrictions also use "m" as the symbol for the metre, which may be displayed alongside feet and inches.[6] TheBBC style holds that "there is no acceptable abbreviation for 'miles'" and so it should be spelled out when used in describing areas.[7]
TheRoman mile (mille passus,lit. "thousand paces";abbr.m.p.; alsomilia passuum[n 2] andmille) consisted of a thousandpaces as measured by every other step—as in the total distance of the left foot hitting the ground 1,000 times.[9] WhenRoman legionaries were well-fed and harshly driven in good weather, they thus created longer miles. The distance was indirectly standardised byAgrippa's establishment of a standardRoman foot (Agrippa's own) in 29 BC,[10] and the definition of a pace as 5 feet. An Imperial Roman mile thus denoted 5,000 Roman feet.Surveyors and specialised equipment such as thedecempeda anddioptra then spread its use.[11]
In modern times, Agrippa's Imperial Roman mile was empirically estimated to have been about 1,618 yards (1,479 m; 4,854 ft; 0.919 mi) in length, slightly less than the 1,760 yards (1,609 m; 5,280 ft) of the modern international mile.[12]
The Roman mile spread throughout Europe, with its local variations giving rise to the different units.[citation needed] Also arising from the Roman mile is themilestone. All roads radiated out from theRoman Forum throughout the Empire – 50,000 (Roman) miles of stone-paved roads. At every mile was placed a shaped stone. Originally, these wereobelisks made from granite, marble, or whatever local stone was available. On these was carved aRoman numeral, indicating the number of miles from the centre of Rome – the Forum. Hence, one can know how far one is from Rome.[13]
TheItalian mile (miglio,pl.miglia) was traditionally considered a direct continuation of the Roman mile, equal to 1000 paces,[14] althoughits actual value over time or between regions could vary greatly.[15] It was often used in international contexts from the Middle Ages into the 17th century[14] and is thus also known as the "geographical mile",[16] although thegeographical mile is now a separate standard unit.
The "oldEnglish mile" of themedieval andearly modern periods varied but seems to have measured about 1.3 international miles (2.1 km).[17][18] The old English mile varied over time and location within England.[18] The old English mile has also been defined as 79,200 or 79,320 inches (1.25 or 1.2519 statute miles).[19] The English long continued the Roman computations of the mile as 5,000 feet, 1,000paces, or 8 longer divisions, which they equated with their "furrow's length" orfurlong.[20]
The origins of English units are "extremely vague and uncertain",[21] but seem to have been a combination of theRoman system with nativeBritish and Germanic systems both derived from multiples of thebarleycorn.[n 3] Probably by the reign ofEdgar in the 10th century, the nominalprototypephysical standard of English length was an arm-length iron bar (a yardstick) held by theking atWinchester;[22][21] the foot was then one-third of its length.Henry I was said to have made a new standard in 1101 based on his own arm.[21] Following the issuance ofMagna Carta in 1215, thebarons ofParliament directedJohn and his son to keep theking's standard measure (Mensura Domini Regis) andweight at theExchequer,[21] which thereafter verified local standards until its abolition in the 19th century. Newbrass standards are known to have been constructed underHenry VII andElizabeth I.[24]
Arnold'sc. 1500Customs of London recorded a mile shorter than previous ones, coming to 0.947 international miles (5,000 feet) or 1.524 km.[20]
"Statute mile" redirects here. For the current statute mile in the United Kingdom, see§ International. For the statute mile in the United States, see§ US survey.
The Englishstatute mile was established by aWeights and MeasuresAct of Parliament in 1593 during the reign ofQueen Elizabeth I. The act on theComposition of Yards and Perches had shortened the length of the foot and its associated measures, causing the two methods of determining the mile to diverge.[25] Owing to the importance of the surveyor'srod in deeds andsurveying undertaken underHenry VIII,[26] decreasing the length of the rod by1⁄11 would have amounted to a significanttax increase. Parliament instead opted to maintain the mile of 8furlongs (which were derived from the rod) and to increase the number of feet per mile from the old Roman value.[27] The applicable passage of the statute reads: "A Mile shall contain eight Furlongs, every Furlong forty Poles,[n 4] and every Pole shall contain sixteen Foot and an half."[29] The statute mile therefore contained 5,280 feet or 1,760 yards.[20] The distance was not uniformly adopted.Robert Morden had multiple scales on his 17th-century maps which included continuing local values: his map ofHampshire, for example, bore two different "miles" with a ratio of1 : 1.23[30] and his map ofDorset had three scales with a ratio of1 : 1.23 : 1.41.[31] In both cases, the traditional local units remained longer than the statute mile. The English statute mile was superseded in 1959 by theinternational mile by international agreement.
TheScots mile was longer than the English mile,[35] as mentioned byRobert Burns in the first verse of his poem "Tam o' Shanter". It comprised 8 (Scots) furlongs divided into 320 falls or faws (Scotsrods).[36] It varied from place to place but the most accepted equivalencies are 1,976 Imperial yards (1.123statute miles or 1.81 km).It was legally abolished three times: first by a 1685 act of theScottish Parliament,[37] again by the 1707Treaty of Union with England,[38] and finally by theWeights and Measures Act 1824.[35] It had continued in use as a customary unit through the 18th century but had become obsolete by its final abolition.
TheIrish mile (míle ormíle Gaelach) measured 2,240 yards: approximately 1.27 statute miles or 2.048 kilometres.[39][40] It was used in Ireland from the16th century plantations until the 19th century, with residual use into the 20th century. The units were based on "English measure" but used alinear perch measuring 7 yards (6.4 m) as opposed to the Englishrod of 5.5 yards (5.0 m).[40]
Scalebar on a 16th-century map made byMercator. The scalebar is expressed in "Hours walking or common Flemish miles", and includes three actual scales: small, medium and big Flemish miles.
TheDutch mile (mijl) has had different definitions throughout history. One of the older definitions was 5,600ells. But the length of an ell was not standardised, so that the length of a mile could range between 3,280 m and 4,280 m. In the sixteenth century, the Dutch had three different miles: small (kleine), medium (middelbaar/gemeen), and large (groote). The Dutchkleine mile had the historical definition of one hour's walking (uur gaans), which was defined as 24 stadia, 3000 paces, or 15,000 Amsterdam or Rhineland feet (respectively 4,250 m or 4,710 m). The common Dutch mile was 32 stadia, 4,000 paces, or 20,000 feet (5,660 m or 6,280 m). The large mile was defined as 5000 paces.[41] The common Dutch mile was preferred by mariners, equating with 15 to one degree oflatitude or one degree oflongitude on theequator. This was originally based uponPtolemy's underestimate of the Earth's circumference. The ratio of 15 Dutch miles to a degree remained fixed while the length of the mile was changed as with improved calculations of the circumference of the Earth. In 1617,Willebrord Snellius calculated a degree of the circumference of the Earth at 28,500Rijnlantsche Roeden (within 3.5% of the actual value), which resulted in a Dutch mile of 1900 rods.[42] By the mid-seventeenth century, map scales assigned 2000 rods to the common Dutch mile, which equalled around 7,535 m (reducing the discrepancy with latitude measurement to less than 2%). The metric system was introduced in the Netherlands in 1816, and the metric mile became a synonym for the kilometre, being exactly 1,000 m. Since 1870, the termmijl was replaced by the equivalentkilometer. Today, the wordmijl is no longer used, except as part of certain proverbs andcompound terms likemijlenver ("miles away").
Various historic miles and leagues from an 1848 German textbook, given in feet, metres, and fractions of a "degree of meridian"
TheGerman mile (Meile) was 24,000 German feet. The standardisedAustrian mile used in southern Germany and theAustrian Empire was 7.586 km; thePrussian mile used in northern Germany was 7.5325 km. Following its standardisation byOle Rømer in the late 17th century, theDanish mile (mil) was precisely equal to the Prussian mile and likewise divided into 24,000 feet.[43] These were sometimes treated as equivalent to 7.5 km. Earlier values had varied: theSjællandske miil, for instance, had been 11.13 km. The Germans also used a longer version of thegeographical mile.
TheBreslau mile, used inBreslau, and from 1630 officially in all ofSilesia, equal to 11,250ells, or about 6,700 meters. The mile equaled the distance from the Piaskowa Gate all the way to Psie Pole (Hundsfeld). By rolling a circle with a radius of 5 ells throughPiaskowa Island,Ostrów Tumski and suburban tracts, passing eight bridges on the way, the standard Breslau mile was determined.[44][45]
TheSaxon post mile (kursächsische Postmeile orPolizeimeile, introduced on occasion of a survey of the Saxon roads in the 1700s, corresponded to 2,000 Dresdenrods, equivalent to 9.062 kilometres.[46]
TheCroatian mile (hrvatska milja), first devised by theJesuitStjepan Glavač on a 1673 map, is the length of an arc of the equator subtended by1/10° or 11.13 km exactly.[48][49] The previous Croatian mile, now known as the "ban mile" (banska milja), had been the Austrian mile given above.[50]
TheOttoman mile was 1,894.35 m, which was equal to 5,000 Ottoman foot. After 1933, the Ottoman mile was replaced with the modern Turkish mile (1,853.181 m).
TheCJK CompatibilityUnicode block contains square-format versions of Japanese names for measurement units as written inkatakana script.Among them, there isU+3344㍄SQUARE MAIRU, afterマイルmairu.
Theinternational mile is precisely equal to1.609344 km (or25146/15625 km as a fraction).[52] It was established as part of the 1959international yard and pound agreement reached by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and theUnion of South Africa,[53] which resolved small but measurable differences that had arisen from separate physical standards each country had maintained for the yard.[54] As with the earlierstatute mile, it continues to comprise 1,760 yards or 5,280 feet.
The old Imperial value of the yard was used in converting measurements to metric values in India in a 1976 Act of the Indian Parliament.[55] However, the current National Topographic Database of theSurvey of India is based on the metricWGS-84datum,[56] which is also used by theGlobal Positioning System.
The difference from the previous standards was 2 ppm, or about 3.2 millimetres (1⁄8 inch) per mile. The US standard was slightly longer and the old Imperial standards had been slightly shorter than the international mile. When the international mile was introduced in English-speaking countries, the basicgeodetic datum in America was theNorth American Datum of 1927 (NAD27). This had been constructed bytriangulation based on the definition of the foot in theMendenhall Order of 1893, with 1 foot = 1200/3937 (≈0.304800609601) metres and the definition was retained for data derived from NAD27, but renamed theUS survey foot to distinguish it from the international foot.[57][n 5] Thus a survey mile = 1200/3937 × 5280 (≈1609.347218694) metres. An international mile = 1609.344 / (1200/3937 × 5280) (=0.999998) survey miles.
The exact length of the land mile varied slightly among English-speaking countries until theinternational yard and pound agreement in 1959 established the yard as exactly 0.9144 metres, giving a mile of exactly 1,609.344 metres. The US adopted this international mile for most purposes, but retained the pre-1959 mile for some land-survey data, terming it theU. S. survey mile. In the United States,statute mile normally refers to the survey mile,[58] about 3.219 mm (1⁄8 inch) longer than the international mile (the international mile is exactly 0.0002% less than the US survey mile).
While many countries abandoned the mile when switching to themetric system, the international mile continues to be used in some countries, such asLiberia,Myanmar,[59] the United Kingdom[60] and the United States.[61] It is also used in a number of territories with less than a million inhabitants, most of which are UK or US territories, or have close historical ties with the UK or US: American Samoa,[62] Bahamas,[63] Belize,[64] British Virgin Islands,[65] Cayman Islands,[66] Dominica,[66] Falkland Islands,[67] Grenada,[68] Guam,[69] The N. Mariana Islands,[70] Samoa,[71] St. Lucia,[72] St. Vincent & The Grenadines,[73] St. Helena,[74] St. Kitts & Nevis,[75] the Turks & Caicos Islands,[76] and the US Virgin Islands.[77]The mile is even encountered in Canada, though this is predominantly in rail transport and horse racing, as the roadways have been metricated since 1977.[78][79][80][81] Ireland gradually replaced miles with kilometres, including in speed measurements; the process was completed in 2005.
For the detailed calculations of international miles to survey miles and feet (above), see§ International.
TheUS survey mile is 5,280US survey feet, or 1,609.347 metres and 0.30480061 metres respectively.[82] Both are very slightly longer than theinternational mile andinternational foot. In the United States, the termstatute mile formally refers to the survey mile,[3] but for most purposes, the difference of less than1⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) between the survey mile and the international mile (1609.344 metres exactly) is insignificant—one international mile is0.999998 US survey miles—sostatute mile can be used for either. But in some cases, such as in the USState Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCSs), which can stretch over hundreds of miles,[83] the accumulated difference can be significant, so it is important to note that the reference is to the US survey mile.
The United States redefined its yard in 1893, and this resulted in US and Imperial measures of distance having very slightly different lengths.
TheNorth American Datum of 1983 (NAD83), which replaced the NAD27, is defined in metres. State Plane Coordinate Systems were then updated, but theNational Geodetic Survey left individual states to decide which (if any) definition of the foot they would use. All State Plane Coordinate Systems are defined in metres, and 42 of the 50 states only use the metre-based State Plane Coordinate Systems. However, eight states also have State Plane Coordinate Systems defined in feet, seven of them in US survey feet and one in international feet.[83]
State legislation in the US is important for determining which conversion factor from the metric datum is to be used for land surveying and real estate transactions, even though the difference (2 ppm) is hardly significant, given the precision of normal surveying measurements over short distances (usually much less than a mile). Twenty-four states have legislated that surveying measures be based on the US survey foot, eight have legislated that they be based on the international foot, and eighteen have not specified which conversion factor to use.[83]
On the utility of the nautical mile. Each circle shown is agreat circle—the analogue of a line in spherical trigonometry—and hence the shortest path connecting two points on the globular surface.Meridians are great circles that pass through the poles.
Thenautical mile was originally defined as oneminute of arc along ameridian of the Earth.[87] Navigators use dividers to step off the distance between two points on the navigational chart, then place the open dividers against the minutes-of-latitude scale at the edge of the chart, and read off the distance in nautical miles.[88] The Earth is not perfectly spherical but anoblate spheroid, so the length of a minute of latitude increases by 1% from the equator to the poles, as seen for example in theWGS84 ellipsoid, with 1,843 metres (6,046 ft) at the equator, 1,862 metres (6,108 ft) at the poles and average 1,852 metres (6,076 ft).
Since 1929 the international nautical mile is defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference inMonaco as exactly 1,852 metres (which is 1.151 miles or 6,076.12 feet).[89] In the United States, the nautical mile was defined in the 19th century as 6,080.2 feet (1,853.24 m), whereas in the United Kingdom, theAdmiralty nautical mile was defined as 6,080 feet (1,853.18 m) and was about one minute of latitude in the latitudes of the south of the UK. Other nations had different definitions of the nautical mile.
The nautical mile per hour is known as theknot. Nautical miles and knots are almost universally used for aeronautical and maritime navigation, because of their relationship with degrees and minutes of latitude and the convenience of using the latitude scale on a map for distance measuring.
Thedata mile is used inradar-related subjects and is equal to 6,000 feet (1.8288 kilometres).[90] Theradar mile is a unit of time (in the same way that thelight year is a unit of distance), equal to the time required for a radar pulse to travel a distance of two miles (one mile each way). Thus, the radar statute mile is 10.8 μs and the radar nautical mile is 12.4 μs.[91]
Thegeographical mile is based upon the length of ameridian oflatitude. The German geographical mile (geographische Meile) was previously1⁄15° of latitude (7.4127 km).[92]
The informal term "metric mile" is used in some countries, in sports such astrack and field athletics andspeed skating, to denote a distance of 1,500 metres (0.932 miles). The1500 meters is the premiermiddle distance running event inOlympic sports. In United States high-school competition, the term is sometimes used for a race of 1,600 metres (0.994 miles).[93]
The Scandinavian mile (mil) remains in common use in Norway and Sweden, where it has meant precisely 10 km since metrication in 1889.[43] It is used in informal situations and in measurements of fuel consumption, which are often given as litres permil. In formal situations (such as official road signs) only kilometres are given.
The Swedish mile was standardised as 36,000 Swedish feet or 10.6884 kilometres (6.6415 miles) in 1649; before that it varied byprovince from about 6 to 14.485 km.[43]
Before metrication, the Norwegian mile was 11.298 kilometres (7.020 miles).
The traditional Finnishpeninkulma was translated asSwedish:mil and also set equal to 10 km during metrication in 1887, but is much less commonly used.
A comparison of the different lengths for a "mile", in different countries and at different times in history, is given in the table below.Leagues are also included in this list because, in terms of length, they fall in between the short West European miles and the long North, Central and Eastern European miles.
Over the course of time, the length of a yard changed several times and consequently so did the English, and from 1824, the imperial mile. The statute mile was introduced in 1592 during the reign of QueenElizabeth I
On 1 July 1959, the imperial mile was standardized to an exact length in metres. This figure corresponds to 5280 feet at 25.4 millimeters per inch.
01,609.3472
(statute) mile
United States
1893
2022
1,760 yards
From 1959 also called theUS Survey Mile. From then, its only utility has been land survey, before it was the standard mile. From 1893, its exact length in metres was:3600/3937 × 1760
Measured at a circumference of 40,000 km. Abbreviation: NM, nm
01,852.3
(for comparison)
1 meridian minute
01,853.181
nautical mile
Turkey
01,855.4
(for comparison)
1 equatorial minute
Although the NM was defined on the basis of the minute, it varies from the equatorial minute, because at that time the circumference of the equator could only be estimated at 40,000 km.
Under the reign of EmperorSeptimius Severus, this replaced the Roman mile as the official unit of distance in theGallic andGermanic provinces, although there were regional and temporal variations.[95]
The mile is still used in a variety ofidioms, even in English-speaking countries that have moved from the Imperial to the metric system (for example, Australia, Canada, or New Zealand). These idioms include:
"A miss is as good as a mile" (failure by a narrow margin is no better than any other failure)
"Give him an inch and he'll take a mile" – a corruption of"Give him an inch and he'll take anell"[99][100] (the person in question will become greedy if shown generosity)
^Young, Norwood, ed. (1908).Handbook for Rome and the Campagna. Murray's Handbooks. E. Stanford. p. 29.Archived from the original on 20 November 2023. Retrieved10 March 2023.
^ab"mile".Dictionary of the Scottish Language – Scottish National Dictionary.Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved14 April 2020.
^"fall, faw".Dictionary of the Scottish Language – Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue.Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved14 April 2020.
^"Act for a standard of miles".Records of the Parliaments of Scotland. Edinburgh. 23 April 1685. APS viii: 494 c.59.Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved10 March 2023.
^Davies, Norman (2002).Mikrokosmos : portret miasta środkowoeuropejskiego: Vratislava, Breslau, Wrocław. Roger Moorhouse, Andrzej Pawelec (Wyd. 1 ed.). Kraków: Wydawn. Znak.ISBN83-240-0172-7.OCLC50928641.
^"Historie der Postsäulen" (in German). Forschungsgruppe Kursächsische Postmeilensäulen e.V. und 1. Sächsischer Postkutschenverein e.V. Archived fromthe original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved5 February 2017.
^Viličić, Marina; Lapaine, Miljenko (2016)."Hrvatska milja na starim kartama" [The Croatian Mile on Old Maps](PDF).Kartografija I Geoinformacije (in Croatian and English).15 (25). Zagreb: Croatian Cartographic Society:4–22.Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved8 July 2019.
^Convert mile [statute] to mile [statute, US]Archived 20 February 2015 at theWayback Machine "1 metre is equal to0.000621371192237 mile [statute], or0.000621369949495 mile [statute, US]. ... The U.S. statute mile (or survey mile) is defined by the survey foot. This is different from the international statute mile, which is defined as exactly 1609.344 metres. The U.S. statute mile is defined as 5,280 U.S. survey feet, which is around1609.347219 metres."
^Branch, Legislative Services (19 April 2021)."Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Weights and Measures Act".laws-lois.justice.gc.ca.Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved10 March 2023.Act current to 18 January 2012. Canadian units (5) The Canadian units of measurement are as set out and defined in Schedule II, and the symbols and abbreviations therefor are as added pursuant to subparagraph 6(1)(b)(ii).
^Government of Canada, Transportation Safety Board of Canada (26 October 2011)."Railway Investigation Report R10E0096 - Transportation Safety Board of Canada".www.tsb.gc.ca.Archived from the original on 14 September 2022. Retrieved10 March 2023.February 2012, Rail Report – 2010 – Report Number R10E0096. Other Factual Information (See Figure 1). 2. Assignment 602 travelled approximately 12 car lengths into track VC-64 and at a speed of 9 mph struck a stationary cut of 46 empty cars (with the air brakes applied) that had been placed in the track about2+1⁄2 hours earlier. Canadian railways have not been metricated and therefore continue to measure trackage in miles and speed in miles per hour.
^Hastings Racecourse Fact BookArchived 18 April 2012 at theWayback Machine Like Canadian railways, Canadian race tracks have not been metricated and continue to measure distance in miles, furlongs, and yards (see page 18 of the fact book).
^Leopold Carl Bleibtreu:Handbuch der Münz-, Maß- und Gewichtskunde und des Wechsel-Staatspapier-, Bank- und Aktienwesens europäischer und außereuropäischer Länder und Städte. Verlag von J. Engelhorn, Stuttgart, 1863, p. 332
Chisholm, Henry Williams (11 March 1864), "No. 115: Letter from the Comptroller General of the Exchequer to the Treasury, Dated 3rd June 1863, Transmitting a Report on the Exchequer Standards of Weight and Measure, Dated 27th April 1863",Accounts and Papers: Session 4 February — 29 July 1864, vol. LVIII, London: Milner Gibson, p. 621
Klein, Herbert Arthur (1988) [Originally published 1974],The Science of Measurement: A Historical Survey, New York:Dover Publications (Previously published bySimon & Schuster as The World of Measurements: Masterpieces, Mysteries and Muddles of Metrology).
Livy (1905), Lease, Emory Bair (ed.),Ab Urbe Condita, vol. I, XXI, & XXII, New York: University Publishing.
Maloney, Elbert S. (1978),Dutton's Navigation and Piloting (13 ed.), Annapolis:Naval Institute Press.
Owen, Aneurin, ed. (1841),"The Venedotian Code",Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales; Comprising Laws Supposed to be Enacted by Howel the Good, Modified by Subsequent Regulations under the Native Princes prior to the Conquest by Edward the First: And Anomalous Laws, Consisting Principally of Institutions which by the Statute of Ruddlan were Admitted to Continue in Force: With an English Translation of the Welsh Text, to which are Added A few Latin Transcripts, Containing Digests of the Welsh Laws, Principally of the Dimetian Code, London: Commissioners on the Public Records of theKingdom.(in Welsh) &(in English)
Oxford English Dictionary,3rd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
"Tafel zur Vergleichung und Bestimmung der Wegemaasse",Naturhistorische und chemischtechnische Notizen nach den neuesten Erfahrungen zur Nutzanwendung für Gewerbe, Fabrikwesen und Landwirthschaft, Expedition der Medicinischen Centralzeitung, 1856, pp. 320–326 (Item notes: Sammlung5-6 (1856–57) Original from Harvard University Digitized 9 January 2008)
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