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Amikveh orMikvah (Hebrew:מִקְוֶה / מקווה,Modern: mīqve,Tiberian: mīqwe,pl. mikva'ot,mikvot, or (Ashkenazic)mikves,[1][2]lit. 'a collection') is a bath used forritual immersion in Judaism[3] to achieveritual purity.
InOrthodox Judaism, these regulations are steadfastly adhered to; consequently, the mikveh is central to an Orthodox Jewish community.Conservative Judaism also formally holds to the regulations. The existence of a mikveh is considered so important that, according tohalacha, a Jewish community is required to construct a kosher mikveh even before building asynagogue, and must go to the extreme of sellingTorah scrolls, or even a synagogue if necessary, to provide funding for its construction.[4][5]
Outside of Judaism, mikveh has its counterpart in Christianity, calledbaptism, though Christian baptism is one of the main requirements for conversion to Christianity, while the Jewish mikveh focuses mainly on ritual purity.[6]
Formed from theSemitic root ק-ו-ה (q-w-h, "collect").[7] In theHebrew Bible, the word is employed in the sense of "collection", including in the phrase מקוה המים (miqwêh hammayim, "collection of water") inGenesis 1:10;Exodus 7:19; andLeviticus 11:36.[8]Ben Sira is the earliest author to use מקוה as a word for "pool" (Ecclus 43:20, 48:17), and theMishnah is the earliest text to use it in the sense of "ritual bath".
Before the beginning of the 1st century BCE, neither written sources nor archaeology gives any indication about the existence of specific installations used for ritual cleansing.[9][10][11] Mikvot appear at the beginning of the 1st century BC, and from then on, ancient mikvot can be found throughout theLand of Israel, as well as in historic communities of theJewish diaspora. Hundreds of mikvot from theSecond Temple period have been discovered so far across the Land of Israel,[12] in locations includingJerusalem,[13]Hebron,[14]Masada,[15] andHannaton.[16]
The absence of dedicated mikvot prior to the 1st century BCE is surprising, given that laws of purification were in fact observed by many Jews in earlier periods, as indicated by Biblical narratives[17] and theElephantine papyri.[18] One suggestion is that Jews used natural water sources such as springs for immersion, rather than building dedicated mikvot.[19] Alternatively, according to many Halakhic authorities the prohibition on using pumped water for amikveh is rabbinic, not biblical.[20] Prior to the creation of such a rabbinic decree around 100 BCE,[dubious –discuss] Jews may have immersed in above-ground basins that were built as part of buildings, or affixed to the roofs of buildings, and filled manually.[18] Such structures, dating to theFirst Temple period, have been discovered in ancientAshdod and possibly inDan.[18] The reason for such a rabbinic decree may have been to distance the practice of ritual immersion from the culture of bathhouses, which spread through the region during theHellenistic period.[18]
The traditional rules regarding the construction of a mikveh are based on those specified in classicalrabbinic literature. Numerous biblical laws indicate that one must "bathe their flesh in water" to become purified from ritual impurity.[21] The type of bathing is specified inLeviticus 11:36, which states that "a spring, or a cistern, a gathering (mikveh) of water" is a source of purity. Amikveh must be built into the ground or built as an essential part of a building. Portable receptacles, bathtubs, whirlpools, or jacuzzis cannot therefore function as mikvot.[22]
However, many Sephardic communities, as well as Ashkenazi Jews in America before World War 2, customarily allowed mikvehs to be filled using municipal water. Bans on such practices only became common in the US after an influx of European Ashkenazi rabbis, who saw the use of municipal water as too lenient. Some rabbis considered permitting spas to be used, but ultimately decided against it as it may encourage women to prefer warm water during immersion instead of prioritizing cold water.[23] According to Rabbi Isaac Esrig, in 1957 most American mikvaot were filled using municipal water.[24]
Mikveh water must have collected naturally (bidei shamayim) rather than by human action. Thus,mikveh water must flow naturally to themikveh from the source (rain or a spring).[25] This essentially means that it must be supplied by gravity or a natural pressure gradient and cannot be pumped there by hand or carried. As a result,tap water cannot be used as the primary water source for a mikveh, although it can be used to top the water up to a desired level provided the minimum amount (40seah) of ritually appropriate water is in themikveh first; in practice, this means that for a pool of at least 80seahs (approximately 1,150 litres) the majority of its volume can be tap water.[26] The water is also forbidden to pass through any vessel which could hold water within it or is capable of becoming impure (anything made of metal); however, pipes open to the air at both ends are fine so long as there is no significant curvature).[27] Frozen water (snow, ice and hail) is exceptional in that it may be used to fill themikveh no matter how it was transported.[28]
Although not commonly accepted, at least one American Orthodox rabbi advocated a homemikveh using tap water, for those women who did not have access to a standardmikveh. As water flows through only pipes that open at both ends, the municipal and in-home plumbing would be construed as a non-vessel. So long as the pipes, hoses, and fittings are all freestanding and not held in the hand, they could be used to fill amikveh receptacle that met all other requirements.[29] The use of tap water for such amikveh was controversial[30] and was rejected by the majority ofrabbinic authorities at the time and afterwards.[30]
The laws for amikveh are slightly different from those of a spring.Mikveh water must be at rest, while spring water can still be flowing. Thus, flowing rivers may only be used for immersion when most of their water comes from springs, rather than rainfall orsnowmelt. Seas may be used (even if waves are present).[31]
A mikveh must contain enough water to cover the entire body of an average-sized person; based on a mikveh with the dimensions of 3cubits deep, 1 cubit wide, and 1 cubit long, the necessary volume of water wasestimated as being 40seah of water.[32][33] The exact volume referred to by aseah is debated, and classical rabbinical literature specifies only that it is enough to fit 144 eggs;[34] most Orthodox Jews use the stringent ruling of theAvrohom Yeshaya Karelitz, according to which oneseah is 14.3 litres, and therefore a mikveh must contain at least some 575litres.[35] This volume of water can later be topped up with water from any source,[26] but if there were less than 40 seahs of water in the mikveh to begin with, then the addition of 3 or morepints of water that did not meet the strict requirements would render the mikveh unfit for use, regardless of whether more water from a natural source was added later; a mikveh rendered unfit for use in this way would need to be completely drained away and refilled in the prescribed way.[8]
Inasmuch as water that collects naturally according to halachic prescriptions is hard to come by in urban areas, various methods are employed to establish a valid mikveh. One is that tap water is made to flow into a kosher mikveh and through a conduit into a larger pool in which users actually bathe. A second method is to create a mikveh in a deep pool, place a floor with holes over that and then fill the upper pool with tap water. In this way, it is considered as if the person dipping is actually "in" the pool of rain water. Additionally, thehashoko method involves using two pools: one filled with at least 40seahs of natural water and one filled with tap water. A hole at least 5 cm (2 in) wide on the wall of the pool filled with tap water connects it to the pool filled with natural water. When these two collections of water touch, the tap water pool is okay to use for ritual immersion.
Most contemporary mikvot are indoor constructions involving rainwater collected from a cistern and passed through a duct by gravity into an ordinary bathing pool; the mikveh can be heated to make the experience of bathing more comfortable, taking into account certain rules, often resulting in an environment not unlike aspa.
Traditionally, the mikveh was used by both men and women to regain ritual purity after various events, according to regulations laid down in theTorah and in classical rabbinical literature.
Cases where Jews commonly immerse in amikveh nowadays, in order to fulfill a requirement of Torah orrabbinic law, include:
Other cases where immersion in amikveh would be required to become pure, but have not generally been practiced sincedestruction of the Temple (as a state of purity is generally not required outside the Temple), include:
Customs exist to immerse in amikveh in some of the following circumstances, with the customs varying by community:
Immersion for men is more common in Hasidic communities, and done rarely in others, likeGerman Jewish communities, where it is generally done only before theHigh Holidays.
There is supposed to be no barrier between the person immersing and the water. The person should be wearing no clothes, jewelry, makeup, nail polish, fake nails, false eyelashes, contact lenses, or grooming products on the hair or skin.[54] The person should carefully wash the hair and the body, removing calluses and dead skin prior. Some trim nails prior to immersion. Hair on the head and body is to be thoroughly combed, although exceptions are sometimes made for hair styled in dreadlocks. The mouth should be thoroughly cleaned and removable dental appliances are usually taken out. The person should carefully check their body after preparation, and sometimes an attendant will also check to ensure these requirements are met.[55] Showering or bathing and carefully checking the whole body is, therefore, part of the religious requirements before entering the water of a mikveh.[56] Although technically the requirements are the same for men and women, the common practice is that men do not go to great lengths to clean themselves before immersion since the immersion (with rare exceptions) is not Halakhically obligatory.
According to rabbinical tradition, the hair counts as part of the body, and therefore water is required to touch all parts of it, meaning that braids cannot be worn during immersion. This has resulted in debate between the various ethnic groups within Judaism, about whether hair combing is necessary before immersion. TheAshkenazi community generally supports the view that hair must be combed straight so that there are no knots, but some take issue with this stance, particularly when it comes to dreadlocks.[citation needed] A number of rabbinical rulings argue in support of dreadlocks, on the basis that
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Orthodox Judaism generally adheres to the classical regulations and traditions, and consequently Orthodox Jewish women are obligated to immerse in a mikveh between niddah and sexual relations with their husbands. This includes brides before their marriage, and married women after their menstruation period or childbirth.
In accordance withOrthodox rules concerning modesty, men and women immerse in separate mikveh facilities in different locations, or else use the mikveh at different designated times.
In a series of responsa in 2006, theCommittee on Jewish Law and Standards ofConservative Judaism reaffirmed a requirement that Conservative women use a mikveh monthly following the end of the niddah period following menstruation, while adopting certain leniencies including reducing the length of the nidda period. The three responsa adopted permit a range of approaches from an opinion reaffirming the traditional ritual to an opinion declaring the concept of ritual purity does not apply outside theTemple in Jerusalem, proposing a new theological basis for the ritual, adapting new terminology including renaming the observances related to menstruation fromtaharat hamishpacha family purity tokedushat hamishpaha [family holiness] to reflect the view that the concept ofritual purity is no longer considered applicable, and adopting certain leniencies including reducing the length of the niddah period.[58][59][60][61]
Isaac Klein'sA Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, a comprehensive guide frequently used within Conservative Judaism, also addresses Conservative views on other uses of a mikveh, but because it predates the 2006 opinions, it describes an approach more closely resembling the Orthodox one, and does not address the leniencies and views those opinions reflected. Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz's recent bookTaking the Plunge: A Practical and Spiritual Guide to the Mikveh (Jerusalem: Schechter Institute, 2007) offers a comprehensive discussion of contemporary issues and new mikveh uses along with traditional reasons for observance, details of how to prepare and what to expect, and how the laws developed. Conservative Judaism encourages, but does not require, immersion before Jewish Holidays (including Yom Kippur), nor the immersion of utensils purchased from non-Jews. New uses are being developed throughout the liberal world for healing (after rape, incest, divorce, etc.) or celebration (milestone birthdays, anniversaries, ordination, or reading Torah for the first time).
As in Orthodox Judaism, converts to Judaism through the Conservative movement are required to immerse themselves in a mikveh. Two Jews must witness the event, at least one of which must actually see the immersion. Immersion into a mikveh has been described as a very emotional, life-changing experience similar to a graduation.[62]
Reform andReconstructionist Judaism do not hold the halachic requirements of mikveh the way Conservative and Orthodox Judaism do, but some Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis recommend a mikveh ceremony. However, there are growing trends toward using mikveh for conversions, wedding preparation, and even before holidays.[63] In the 21st century the mikveh is experiencing[according to whom?] a revival among progressive Jews who view immersion as a way to mark transitions in their lives.[citation needed] By 2001, theCentral Conference of American Rabbis began to recommend a mikveh ceremony for converts.[64]
"Open" mikvot welcome Jews to consider immersion for reasons not necessarily required by Jewish law; they might immerse following a divorce or medical treatment, to find closure after anabortion, or to celebrate a life transition, among other reasons.[54] Progressive Jews may also use the mikveh for conversion.[65]
RabbiAryeh Kaplan connects the laws of impurity to the narrative in the beginning ofGenesis. According to Genesis, by eating of the fruit,Adam andEve had brought death into the world. Kaplan points out that most of the laws of impurity relate to some form of death (or in the case of niddah the loss of a potential life). One who comes into contact with one of the forms of death must then immerse in water which is described in Genesis as flowing out of theGarden of Eden (the source of life) in order to cleanse oneself of this contact with death (and by extension of sin).[66]
According to RabbiAbraham Isaac Kook, by immersing in the mikveh, "we are forced to recognize our existential estrangement from the physical universe. How long can we survive under water? The experience of submerging drives home the realization that our existence in this world is transient, and we should strive towards more lasting goals."[67]
A custom exists to read the seventh chapter of theMikvaot tractate of theMishnah following afuneral. This tractate covers the laws of the mikveh, and the seventh chapter starts with a discussion of substances which can be used as valid water sources for a mikveh—snow, hail, frost, ice, salt, and pourable mud. This alludes to the belief in resurrection, as "living water" in a lifeless frozen state (as ice) can still become living water again (after melting).
The wordmikveh makes use of the same root letters in Hebrew as the word for "hope", and this has served as the basis for homiletical comparison of the two concepts in both biblical and rabbinic literature. For instance, in theBook of Jeremiah, the wordmikveh is used in the sense of "hope", but at the same time also associated with "living water":
O Hashem, the Hope [mikveh] of Israel, all who forsake you will be ashamed... because they have forsaken Hashem, the fountain of living water[68]
Are there any of the worthless idols of the nations, that can cause rain? or can the heavens give showers? Is it not you, Hashem our God, and do we not hope [nekaveh] in you? For you have made all these things.[69]
In the Mishnah, following on from a discussion of Yom Kippur,Rabbi Akiva comparesmikveh immersion to the relationship between God and Israel. Akiva refers to the description of God in the Book of Jeremiah as the "Mikveh of Israel", and suggests that "just as a mikveh purifies the contaminated, so does the Holy One, blessed is he, purify Israel".[70]
The Reform Movement'sIsrael Religious Action Center sued the state on behalf of the Reform and Conservative/Masorti movements to allow members to use publicly funded mikvot. The case, which took ten years to resolve, resulted in the Israeli Supreme Court ruling that public ritual baths must accept all prospective converts to Judaism, including converts to Reform and Conservative Judaism. In his 2016 ruling, Supreme Court JusticeElyakim Rubinstein said barring certain converts amounts to discrimination. Until this ruling, Orthodox officials barred non-Orthodox converts from using any mikveh, as their traditions do nottechnically[clarification needed] conform to Jewish law, and the people they convert are therefore not technically Jews. Rubinstein noted: "Once it established public mikvahs, and put them at the service of the public—including for the process of conversion—the State cannot but be even-handed in allowing their use." He also said. "The State of Israel is free to supervise the use of its mikvahs, so long as it does so in an egalitarian manner."[71]
In 2013, the IsraeliCenter for Women's Justice andKolech, an organization committed toOrthodox Jewish feminism, petitioned the Supreme Court to forbid attendants from asking intrusive questions of women at state-funded and -operated mikvot. In response, the Chief Rabbinate said it would forbid questioning of women about their marital status before immersion. The complaint had charged that the practice represented unacceptable discrimination.[72] In 2015, however, the ITIM Advocacy Center filed a complaint with the Israeli Supreme Court on behalf of 13 Orthodox women against theChief Rabbinate and theJerusalem Religious Council, insisting that women be allowed to use the mikvah "according to their personal customs and without supervision, or with their own attendant if they wish". The complaint charged that the Chief Rabbinate is ignoring directives passed in 2013 that allow women to use the mikvah facilities without being asked intrusive questions by attendants.[73] In June 2016, the Chief Rabbinate agreed to allow women to use a mikveh without an attendant.[74]
Some transgender people have adopted the practice of mikveh immersion to mark a gender transition. However, many Orthodox authorities who control mikvot only permit immersions that adhere with their view of Jewish law. Therefore, other Jewish organizations strive to create mikvot that allow for different uses, such as marking any important life transitions. Mayyim Hayyim, an organization in Newton, Massachusetts, collaborated with Keshet, one of Boston's LGBT Jewish organizations, to actively create a mikveh space that felt accessible to transgender people, including training mikveh guides on gender issues.[75]
There is some controversy within the Jewish transgender community about the use of mikvah to mark gender transitions. Some feel uncomfortable in a space that is traditionally so highly gendered and that requires complete nudity. Others still see mikveh as a place for married women to go after their periods, and therefore a transgender female would be exempt from these requirements as she does not menstruate.[75]
Adler, Cyrus; Greenstone, Julius H. (1904)."MIḲWEH". InSinger, Isidore; et al. (eds.).The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. p. 588. RetrievedFeb 23, 2016.Although water purification is referred to in the Old Testament, in regard to rituals and the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, with washing, sprinkling, and dipping in water, we do not hear of specific places or installations that people would constantly frequent for the purpose of ritually cleansing their flesh. The term mikveh was used in a very general sense in the Hebrew Bible to refer to a body of water of indeterminate extent (cf. Gen. 1:10; Ex. 7:19), or more specifically to waters gathered from a spring or within a cistern (Lev. 11:36) or waters designated for a large reservoir situated in Jerusalem (Isa. 22:11). None of these places are mentioned as having been used for ritual purification in any way. Hence, the concept of the mikveh as a hewn cave or constructed purification pool attached to one's dwelling or place of work is undoubtedly a later one.
.... bothmikva'ot and the new vessels.... "household Judaism".... specific behavior carried out via material objects. ....the specific objects are new, first appearing in the early years of the last century BC, but not before.
"Archaeologically, it's very hard to tell who's a Jew in the third or second century BC.", excavation director Uzi Leibner explained toThe Times of Israel, because the later indicators like mikvaot (Jewish ritual baths) and certain ritual objects were not present at that time.
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