Up to one-third of people with migraine experienceaura, a premonitory period of sensory disturbance widely accepted to be caused bycortical spreading depression at the onset of a migraine attack.[4] Although primarily considered to be a headache disorder, migraine is highly heterogenous in its clinical presentation and is better thought of as a spectrum disease rather than a distinct clinical entity.[6]Disease burden can range from episodic discrete attacks to chronic disease.[6][7]
Migraine is believed to be caused by a mixture of environmental and genetic factors that influence the excitation and inhibition ofnerve cells in the brain.[8] The accepted hypothesis suggests that multiple primary neuronal impairments lead to a series of intracranial and extracranial changes, triggering a physiological cascade that leads to migraine symptomatology.[9]
Globally, approximately 15% of people are affected by migraine.[19] In theGlobal Burden of Disease Study, conducted in 2010, migraine ranked as the third-most prevalent disorder in the world.[20] It most often starts at puberty and is worst during middle age.[21] As of 2016[update], it is one of the most common causes ofdisability.[22]
Migraine typically presents with self-limited, recurrent severe headache associated withautonomic symptoms.[23][24] About 15–30% of people living with migraine experience episodes withaura,[10][25] and they also frequently experience episodes without aura.[26] The severity of the pain, duration of the headache, and frequency of attacks are variable.[23] A migraine attack lasting longer than 72 hours is termed status migrainosus.[27] There are four possible phases to a migraine attack, although not all the phases are necessarily experienced:[28]
Theprodrome, which occurs hours or days before the headache
Prodromal or premonitory symptoms occur in about 60% of those with migraine,[30][31] with an onset that can range from two hours to two days before the start of pain or the aura.[32] These symptoms may include a wide variety of phenomena,[33] including altered mood, irritability,depression oreuphoria,fatigue, craving for certain food(s), stiff muscles (especially in the neck), constipation ordiarrhea, and sensitivity to smells or noise.[31] This may occur in those with either migraine with aura or migraine without aura.[34] Neuroimaging indicates thelimbic system andhypothalamus as the origin of prodromal symptoms in migraine.[35]
Aura is a transient focal neurological phenomenon that occurs before or during the headache.[30] Aura appears gradually over a number of minutes (usually occurring over 5–60 minutes) and generally lasts less than 60 minutes.[36][37] Symptoms can be visual, sensory or motoric in nature, and many people experience more than one.[38] Visual effects occur most frequently: they occur in up to 99% of cases and in more than 50% of cases are not accompanied by sensory or motor effects.[38] If any symptom remains after 60 minutes, the state is known aspersistent aura.[39]
Visual disturbances often consist of ascintillating scotoma (an area of partial alteration in thefield of vision which flickers and may interfere with a person's ability to read or drive).[30] These typically start near the center of vision and then spread out to the sides with zigzagging lines which have been described as looking like fortifications or walls of a castle.[38] Usually the lines are in black and white but some people also see colored lines.[38] Some people lose part of their field of vision known ashemianopsia while others experience blurring.[38]
Sensory aura are the second most common type; they occur in 30–40% of people with auras.[38] Often a feeling of pins-and-needles begins on one side in the hand and arm and spreads to the nose–mouth area on the same side.[38] Numbness usually occurs after the tingling has passed with a loss ofposition sense.[38] Other symptoms of the aura phase can include speech or language disturbances,world spinning, and less commonly motor problems.[38] Motor symptoms indicate that this is ahemiplegic migraine, and weakness often lasts longer than one hour unlike other auras.[38]Auditory hallucinations ordelusions have also been described.[40]
Classically the headache is unilateral, throbbing, and moderate to severe in intensity.[36] It usually comes on gradually[36] and is aggravated by physical activity during a migraine attack.[28] However, the effects of physical activity on migraine are complex, and some researchers have concluded that, while exercise can trigger migraine attacks, regular exercise may have aprophylactic effect and decrease frequency of attacks.[41] The feeling of pulsating pain is not in phase with thepulse.[42] In more than 40% of cases, however, the pain may be bilateral (both sides of the head), and neck pain is commonly associated with it.[43] Bilateral pain is particularly common in those who have migraine without aura.[30] Less commonly pain may occur primarily in the back or top of the head.[30] The pain usually lasts 4 to 72 hours in adults;[36] however, in young children frequently lasts less than 1 hour.[44] The frequency of attacks is variable, from a few in a lifetime to several a week, with the average being about one a month.[45][46]
The pain is frequently accompanied by nausea, vomiting,sensitivity to light,sensitivity to sound,sensitivity to smells, fatigue, and irritability.[30] Many thus seek a dark and quiet room.[47] In abasilar migraine, a migraine with neurological symptoms related to thebrain stem or with neurological symptoms on both sides of the body,[48] common effects includea sense of the world spinning, light-headedness, and confusion.[30]Nausea occurs in almost 90% of people, and vomiting occurs in about one-third.[47] Other symptoms may includeblurred vision, nasal stuffiness, diarrhea, frequent urination,pallor, or sweating.[49] Swelling or tenderness of the scalp may occur as can neck stiffness.[49] Associated symptoms are less common in the elderly.[50]
Sometimes, aura occurs without a subsequent headache.[38] This is known in modern classification as atypical aura without headache, or acephalgic migraine in previous classification, or commonly as a silent migraine.[51][52] However, silent migraine can still produce debilitating symptoms, with visual disturbance, vision loss in half of both eyes, alterations in color perception, and other sensory problems, like sensitivity to light, sound, and odors.[53] It can last from 15 to 30 minutes, usually no longer than 60 minutes, and it can recur or appear as an isolated event.[52]
The migraine postdrome could be defined as that constellation of symptoms occurring once the acute headache has settled.[54] Many report a sore feeling in the area where the migraine was, and some report impaired thinking for a few days after the headache has passed. The person may feel tired or "hung over" and have head pain, cognitive difficulties, gastrointestinal symptoms, mood changes, and weakness.[55] According to one summary, "Some people feel unusually refreshed or euphoric after an attack, whereas others note depression andmalaise."[56][unreliable medical source?]
The underlying cause of migraine is unknown.[57] However, it is believed to be related to a mix of environmental and genetic factors.[8] Migraine runs in families in about two-thirds of cases[23] and rarely occur due to a single gene defect.[58] While migraine attacks were once believed to be more common in those of high intelligence, this does not appear to be true.[45] A number ofpsychological conditions are associated, includingdepression,anxiety, andbipolar disorder.[59]
Intracranialcavernous sinus: a potential site where dilation of cerebral vessels can compress multiple cranial nerves.
Success of the surgical migraine treatment bydecompression of extracranial sensory nerves adjacent to vessels[60] suggests that people with migraine may have anatomical predisposition for neurovascular compression[61] that may be caused by both intracranial and extracranial vasodilation due to migraine triggers.[62] This, along with the existence of numerous cranial neural interconnections,[63] may explain the multiple cranial nerve involvement and consequent diversity of migraine symptoms.[64]
Studies of twins indicate a 34–51% genetic influence on the likelihood of developing migraine.[8] This genetic relationship is stronger for migraine with aura than for migraine without aura.[26] It is clear from family andpopulations studies that migraine is acomplex disorder, where numerousgenetic risk variants exist, and where each variant increases the risk of migraine marginally.[65][66] It is also known that having several of these risk variants increases the risk by a small to moderate amount.[58]
The common forms migraine arepolygenetic, where common variants of numerous genes contributes to the predisposition for migraine. These genes can be placed in three categories increasing the risk of migraine in general, specifically migraine with aura, or migraine without aura.[72][73] Three of these genes,CALCA,CALCB, andHTR1F are already target for migraine specific treatments. Five genes are specific risk to migraine with aura,PALMD,ABO,LRRK2,CACNA1A andPRRT2, and 13 genes are specific to migraine without aura. Using the accumulated genetic risk of the common variations, into a so-calledpolygenetic risk, it is possible to assess e.g. the treatment response to triptans.[74][75]
Migraine may be induced by triggers, with some reporting it as an influence in a minority of cases[23] and others the majority.[76] Many things such as fatigue, certain foods, alcohol, and weather have been labeled as triggers; however, the strength and significance of these relationships are uncertain.[76][77] Most people with migraine report experiencing triggers.[78] Symptoms may start up to 24 hours after a trigger.[23]
Also, evidence shows a strong association between migrane and the quality of sleep, particularly poor subjective quality of sleep. The relationship seems to be bidirectional, as migraine frequency increases with low quality of sleep yet the underlying mechanism of this correlation remains poorly understood.[79]
Common triggers quoted are stress, hunger, and fatigue (these equally contribute totension headaches).[76] Psychological stress has been reported as a factor by 50–80% of people.[80] Migraine has also been associated withpost-traumatic stress disorder and abuse.[81] Migraine episodes are more likely to occur aroundmenstruation.[80] Other hormonal influences, such asmenarche,oral contraceptive use,pregnancy, perimenopause, andmenopause, also play a role.[82] These hormonal influences seem to play a greater role in migraine without aura.[45] Migraine episodes typically do not occur during thesecond andthird trimesters of pregnancy, or following menopause.[30]
Between 12% and 60% of people report foods as triggers.[83][84]
There are many reports[85][86][87][88][89] thattyramine – which is naturally present in chocolate, alcoholic beverages, most cheeses, processed meats, and other foods – can trigger migraine symptoms in some individuals.Monosodium glutamate (MSG) has been reported as a trigger for migraine,[90] but a systematic review concluded that "a causal relationship between MSG and headache has not been proven... It would seem premature to conclude that the MSG present in food causes headache".[91]
A 2009 review on potential triggers in the indoor and outdoor environment concluded that while there were insufficient studies to confirm environmental factors as causing migraine, "migraineurs worldwide consistently report similar environmental triggers ... such as barometric pressure change, bright sunlight, flickering lights, air quality and odors".[92]
Migraine is believed to be primarily a neurological disorder,[93][94] while others believe it to be a neurovascular disorder with blood vessels playing the key role, although evidence does not support this completely.[95][96][97][98] Others believe both are likely important.[99][100][101][102] One theory is related to increased excitability of thecerebral cortex and abnormal control of painneurons in thetrigeminal nucleus of thebrainstem.[103]
Sensitization of trigeminal pathways is a key pathophysiological phenomenon in migraine. It is debatable whether sensitization starts in the periphery or in the brain.[104][105]
Cortical spreading depression, orspreading depression according toLeão, is a burst of neuronal activity followed by a period of inactivity, which is seen in those with migraine with aura.[106] There are a number of explanations for its occurrence, including activation ofNMDA receptors leading to calcium entering the cell.[106] After the burst of activity, the blood flow to the cerebral cortex in the area affected is decreased for two to six hours.[106] It is believed that when depolarization travels down the underside of the brain, nerves that sense pain in the head and neck are triggered.[106]
The exact mechanism of the head pain which occurs during a migraine episode is unknown.[107] Some evidence supports a primary role forcentral nervous system structures (such as thebrainstem anddiencephalon),[108] while other data support the role of peripheral activation (such as via thesensory nerves that surroundblood vessels of the head and neck).[107] The potential candidate vessels includedural arteries,pial arteries and extracranial arteries such as those of thescalp.[107] The role of vasodilatation of the extracranial arteries, in particular, is believed to be significant.[109]
Adenosine, aneuromodulator, may be involved.[110] Released after the progressive cleavage ofadenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine acts onadenosine receptors to put the body and brain in a low activity state by dilating blood vessels and slowing the heart rate, such as before and during the early stages of sleep. Adenosine levels have been found to be high during migraine attacks.[110][111] Caffeine's role as an inhibitor of adenosine may explain its effect in reducing migraine.[112] Low levels of the neurotransmitterserotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), are also believed to be involved.[113]
Calcitonin gene-related peptides (CGRPs) have been found to play a role in the pathogenesis of the pain associated with migraine, as levels of it become elevated during an attack.[10][42]
The diagnosis of a migraine is based on signs and symptoms.[23]Neuroimaging tests are not necessary to diagnose migraine, but may be used to find other causes of headaches in those whose examination and history do not confirm a migraine diagnosis.[114] It is believed that a substantial number of people with the condition remain undiagnosed.[23]
The diagnosis of migraine without aura, according to theInternational Headache Society, can be made according the "5, 4, 3, 2, 1 criteria", which is as follows:[28]
Five or more attacks – for migrainewith aura, two attacks are sufficient for diagnosis.
Four hours to three days in duration
Two or more of the following:
Unilateral (affecting one side of the head)
Pulsating
Moderate or severe pain intensity
Worsened by or causing avoidance of routine physical activity
If someone experiences two of the following: photophobia, nausea, or inability to work or study for a day, the diagnosis is more likely.[115] In those with four out of five of the following: pulsating headache, duration of 4–72 hours, pain on one side of the head, nausea, or symptoms that interfere with the person's life, the probability that this is a migraine attack is 92%.[10] In those with fewer than three of these symptoms, the probability is 17%.[10]
Migraine is divided into six subclasses (some of which include further subdivisions):[118]
Migraine without aura, or "common migraine", involves migraine headaches that are not accompanied by aura.
Migraine with aura, or "classic migraine", usually involves migraine headaches accompanied by aura. Less commonly, aura can occur without a headache, or with a nonmigraine headache. Two other varieties arefamilial hemiplegic migraine andsporadic hemiplegic migraine, in which a person has migraine with aura and with accompanying motor weakness. If a close relative has had the same condition, it is called "familial", otherwise it is called "sporadic". Another variety is basilar-type migraine, where a headache and aura are accompanied bydifficulty speaking,world spinning,ringing in ears, or a number of other brainstem-related symptoms, but not motor weakness. This type was initially believed to be due to spasms of thebasilar artery, the artery that supplies the brainstem. Now that this mechanism is not believed to be primary, the symptomatic termmigraine with brainstem aura (MBA) is preferred.[48]Retinal migraine (which is distinct from visual or optical migraine) involves migraine headaches accompanied by visual disturbances or even temporary blindness in one eye.
Complications of migraine describe migraine headaches and/or auras that are unusually long or unusually frequent, or associated with a seizure or brain lesion.
Probable migraine describes conditions that have some characteristics of migraine, but where there is not enough evidence to diagnose it as migraine with certainty (in the presence of concurrent medication overuse).
Chronic migraine is a complication of migraine, and is a headache that fulfills diagnostic criteria formigraine headache and occurs for a greater time interval. Specifically, greater or equal to 15 days/month for longer than 3 months.[119]
The diagnosis ofabdominal migraine is controversial.[120] Some evidence indicates that recurrent episodes of abdominal pain in the absence of a headache may be a type of migraine[120][121] or are at least a precursor to migraine attacks.[26] These episodes of pain may or may not follow a migraine-like prodrome and typically last minutes to hours.[120] They often occur in those with either a personal or family history of typical migraine.[120] Other syndromes that are believed to be precursors includecyclical vomiting syndrome andbenign paroxysmal vertigo of childhood.[26]
Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms to a migraine headache includetemporal arteritis,cluster headaches,acute glaucoma,meningitis andsubarachnoid hemorrhage.[10] Temporal arteritis typically occurs in people over 50 years old and presents with tenderness over thetemple, cluster headache presents with one-sided nose stuffiness, tears and severe pain around theorbits, acute glaucoma is associated with vision problems, meningitis withfevers, and subarachnoid hemorrhage with a very fast onset.[10]Tension headaches typically occur on both sides, are not pounding, and are less disabling.[10]
Those with stable headaches that meet criteria for migraine should not receiveneuroimaging to look for other intracranial disease.[122][123][124] This requires that other concerning findings such aspapilledema (swelling of the optic disc) are not present. People with migraine are not at an increased risk of having another cause for severe headaches.[citation needed]
Management of migraine includesprevention of migraine attacks andrescue treatment. There are three main aspects of treatment: trigger avoidance, acute (abortive), and preventive (prophylactic) control.[125]
Modern approaches to migraine management emphasize personalized care that considers individual patient needs. Lifestyle modifications, such as managing triggers and addressing comorbidities, form the foundation of treatment. Behavioral techniques and supplements like magnesium and riboflavin can serve as supportive options for some individuals.[126] Behavioral techniques that have been utilized in the treatment of migraines include Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), relaxation training, biofeedback, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), as well as mindfulness-based therapies.[127] A 2024 systematic literature review and meta analysis found evidence that treatments such as CBT, relaxation training, ACT, and mindfulness-based therapies can reduce migraine frequency both on their own and in combination with other treatment options.[127] In addition, it was found that relaxation therapy aided in the lessening of migraine frequency when compared to education by itself.[127] Similarly for children and adolescents, CBT and biofeedback strategies have shown effective in a decrease of frequency and intensity of migraines. These techniques often include relaxation methods and promotion of long-term management without medication side effects which is emphasized for younger individuals.[127] Acute treatments, including NSAIDs and triptans, are most effective when administered early in an attack, while preventive medications are recommended for those experiencing frequent or severe migraines. Proven preventive options include beta blockers, topiramate, and CGRP inhibitors like erenumab and galcanezumab, which have demonstrated significant efficacy in clinical studies.[128] The European Consensus Statement provides a framework for diagnosis and management, emphasizing the importance of accurate assessment, patient education, and consistent adherence to prescribed treatments. Innovative therapies of oral medications used to treat migraine symptoms, such as gepants and ditans, are emerging as alternatives for patients who cannot use traditional options.[129]
A 2024systematic review andnetwork meta analysis compared the effectiveness of medications for acute migraine attacks in adults. It found that triptans were the most effective class of drugs followed by non-steroidal anti-inflammatories.Gepants were less effective than non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.[130][131]
Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is aneuropeptide implicated in thepathophysiology of migraines. It is predominantly found in thetrigeminal ganglion and central nervous system pathways associated with migraine mechanisms.[132] During migraine attacks, elevated levels of CGRP are detected, leading to vasodilation of cerebral and dural blood vessels and the release of inflammatory mediators from mast cells. These actions contribute to the transmission of nociceptive signals, culminating in migraine pain. Targeting CGRP has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for migraine management. Several CGRP inhibitors have been developed and approved for clinical use, categorized into monoclonal antibodies and small-molecule receptor antagonists (gepants).
Monoclonal Antibodies:
Erenumab (Aimovig): A monoclonal antibody that inhibits the CGRP receptor, administered via monthly subcutaneous injections.[133]
Fremanezumab (Ajovy): Targets the CGRP ligand, available as monthly or quarterly subcutaneous injections.[133]
Galcanezumab (Emgality): Binds to the CGRP ligand, administered monthly via subcutaneous injection.[133]
Eptinezumab (Vyepti): Targets the CGRP ligand, administered quarterly through intravenous infusion.[133]
"Migraine exists on a continuum of different attack frequencies and associated levels of disability."[134] For those with occasional, episodic migraine, a "proper combination of drugs for prevention and treatment of migraine attacks" can limit the disease's impact on patients' personal and professional lives.[135] But fewer than half of people with migraine seek medical care and more than half go undiagnosed and undertreated.[136] "Responsive prevention and treatment of migraine is incredibly important" because evidence shows "an increased sensitivity after each successive attack, eventually leading to chronic daily migraine in some individuals."[135] Repeated migraine results in "reorganization of brain circuitry", causing "profound functional as well as structural changes in the brain."[137] "One of the most important problems in clinical migraine is the progression from an intermittent, self-limited inconvenience to a life-changing disorder of chronic pain, sensory amplification, and autonomic and affective disruption. This progression, sometimes termed chronification in the migraine literature, is common, affecting 3% of migraineurs in a given year, such that 8% of migraineurs have chronic migraine in any given year." Brain imagery reveals that the electrophysiological changes seen during an attack become permanent in people with chronic migraine; "thus, from an electrophysiological point of view, chronic migraine indeed resembles a never-ending migraine attack."[137] Severe migraine ranks in the highest category of disability, according to the World Health Organization, which uses objective metrics to determine disability burden for the authoritative annualGlobal Burden of Disease report. The report classifies severe migraine alongside severe depression, active psychosis, quadriplegia, and terminal-stage cancer.[138]
Migraine with aura appears to be a risk factor forischemic stroke[139] doubling the risk.[140] Being a young adult, being female, usinghormonal birth control, and smoking further increases this risk.[139] There also appears to be an association withcervical artery dissection.[141] Migraine without aura does not appear to be a factor.[142] The relationship with heart problems is inconclusive with a single study supporting an association.[139] Migraine does not appear to increase the risk of death from stroke or heart disease.[143] Preventative therapy of migraine in those with migraine with aura may prevent associated strokes.[144] People with migraine, particularly women, may develop higher than average numbers ofwhite matter brain lesions of unclear significance.[145]
Percent of women and men who have experienced migraine with or without aura within the last 3 months
Migraine is common, with around 33% of women and 18% of men affected at some point in their lifetime.[146] Onset can be at any age, but prevalence rises sharply aroundpuberty, and remains high until declining after age 50.[146] Before puberty, boys and girls are equally impacted, with around 5% of children experiencing migraine attacks. From puberty onwards, women experience migraine attacks at greater rates than men. From age 30 to 50, up to 4 times as many women experience migraine attacks as men.,[146] this is most pronounced in migraine without aura.[147]
Worldwide, migraine affects nearly 15% or approximately one billion people.[19] In the United States, about 6% of men and 18% of women experience a migraine attack in a given year, with a lifetime risk of about 18% and 43% respectively.[23] In Europe, migraine affects 12–28% of people at some point in their lives with about 6–15% of adult men and 14–35% of adult women getting at least one attack yearly.[148] Rates of migraine are slightly lower in Asia and Africa than in Western countries.[45][149] Chronic migraine occurs in approximately 1.4–2.2% of the population.[150]
Duringperimenopause symptoms often get worse before decreasing in severity.[151] While symptoms resolve in about two-thirds of the elderly, in 3–10% they persist.[50]
An early description consistent with migraine is contained in theEbers Papyrus, written around 1500 BCE in ancient Egypt.[152]
The wordmigraine is from theGreek ἡμικρᾱνίᾱ (hēmikrāníā), 'pain in half of the head',[153] from ἡμι- (hēmi-), 'half' and κρᾱνίον (krāníon), 'skull'.[154]
In 200 BCE, writings from theHippocratic school of medicine described the visual aura that can precede the headache and a partial relief occurring through vomiting.[155]
A second-century description byAretaeus of Cappadocia divided headaches into three types: cephalalgia, cephalea, and heterocrania.[156]Galen of Pergamon used the term hemicrania (half-head), from which the word migraine was eventually derived.[156] He also proposed that the pain arose from the meninges and blood vessels of the head.[155] Migraine was first divided into the two now used types – migraine with aura (migraine ophthalmique) and migraine without aura (migraine vulgaire) in 1887 by Louis Hyacinthe Thomas, a French librarian.[155] The mystical visions ofHildegard von Bingen, which she described as "reflections of the living light", are consistent with the visual aura experienced during migraine attacks.[157]
Atrepanated skull, from theNeolithic. The perimeter of the hole in the skull is rounded off by ingrowth of new bony tissue, indicating that the person survived the operation.
Trepanation, the deliberate drilling of holes into a skull, was practiced as early as 7,000 BCE.[152] While sometimes people survived, many would have died from the procedure due to infection.[158] It was believed to work via "letting evil spirits escape".[159]William Harvey recommended trepanation as a treatment for migraine in the 17th century.[160] The association between trepanation and headaches in ancient history may simply be a myth or unfounded speculation that originated several centuries later. In 1913, the world-famous American physician William Osler misinterpreted the French anthropologist and physician Paul Broca's words about a set of children's skulls from the Neolithic age that he found during the 1870s. These skulls presented no evident signs of fractures that could justify this complex surgery for mere medical reasons. Trepanation was probably born of superstitions, to remove "confined demons" inside the head, or to create healing or fortune talismans with the bone fragments removed from the skulls of the patients. However, Osler wanted to make Broca's theory more palatable to his modern audiences, and explained that trepanation procedures were used for mild conditions such as "infantile convulsions headache and various cerebral diseases believed to be caused by confined demons."[161]
While many treatments for migraine have been attempted, it was not until 1868 that use of a substance which eventually turned out to be effective began.[155] This substance was the fungusergot from which ergotamine was isolated in 1918[162] and first used to treat migraine in 1925.[163]Methysergide was developed in 1959 and the first triptan,sumatriptan, was developed in 1988.[162] During the 20th century with better study-design, effective preventive measures were found and confirmed.[155]
Migraine is a significant source of both medical costs and lost productivity. It has been estimated that migraine is the most costly neurological disorder in the European Community, costing more than €27 billion per year.[164] In the United States, direct costs have been estimated at $17 billion, while indirect costs – such as missed or decreased ability to work – is estimated at $15 billion.[165] Nearly a tenth of the direct cost is due to the cost oftriptans.[165] In those who do attend work during a migraine attack, effectiveness is decreased by around a third.[164] Negative impacts also frequently occur for a person's family.[164]
Statistical data indicates that women may be more prone to having migraine, showing migraine incidence three times higher among women than men.[170][171] TheSociety for Women's Health Research has also mentioned hormonal influences, mainly estrogen, as having a considerable role in provoking migraine pain. Studies and research related to the sex dependencies of migraine are still ongoing, and conclusions have yet to be achieved.[172]
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