 | This article has multiple issues. Please helpimprove it or discuss these issues on thetalk page.(Learn how and when to remove these messages) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
|
| Part of a series on |
| Philosophy |
|---|
 |
Middle Eastern philosophy includes the variousphilosophies of theMiddle East regions, including theFertile Crescent andIran. Traditions includeAncient Egyptian philosophy,Babylonian philosophy,Christian philosophy,Jewish philosophy,Iranian/Persian philosophy, andIslamic philosophy.
The origins ofBabylonian philosophy, in the popular sense of the word, can be traced back to thewisdom of earlyMesopotamia, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularlyethics, in the forms ofdialectic,dialogs,epic poetry,folklore,hymns,lyrics,prose, andproverbs. Thereasoning andrationality of the Babylonians developed beyondempirical observation.[1]
It is possible that Babylonian philosophy had an influence onGreek philosophy, and laterHellenistic philosophy, however the textual evidence is lacking. The undated Babylonian textDialogue of Pessimism contains similarities to theagnostic thought of thesophists, theHeraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogs ofPlato, as well as a precursor to themaieuticSocratic method ofSocrates and Plato.[2] TheMilesian philosopherThales is also said to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia.
Egyptian philosophy began with development of its ancient cosmology. By 1,000 B.C. philosophers were already proposing four constituent elements in the universe, namely: mist, earth, fire, and water.[3] This formed the basis of their investigations of the heaven and the earth.[3] A tradition ofHolism emerged out of this development. It addressed the ontological question: What exists?[4] Egyptian thinkers joined spirit and matter so that humans were not separated from animals and even gods.[5] For this reason, priests also functioned as philosophers, astronomers, architects, and healers.[6]
There are scholars who cite that the ancient Egyptian philosophy influenced ancient Greek philosophy.[7] Greek philosophers such asPlato andPythagoras either went on pilgrimages in Egypt or received their training there.[7][8] Pythagoras, particularly, established a philosophical school based on the Mystery School of ancient Egypt, where he spent training for more than two decades.[6] This philosophy is rooted on Egyptian metaphysics that embraced the heavens and the earth in a sweeping unity.[6]
See alsoAncient Iranian Philosophy
Zoroastrianism is amonotheistic religion, which originated inIran. It has a dualistic nature (Ahura Mazda andAngra Mainyu), with an additional series of six important divine entities called theAmesha Spentas.[9] In modern Zoroastrianism they are interpreted as aspects or emanations of Ahura Mazda (the Supreme Being), who form a heptad that is good and constructive. They are opposed to another group of seven who are evil and destructive. It is this persistent conflict between good and evil that distinguishes Zoroastrianism from monotheistic frameworks that have only one power as supreme. By requiring its adherents to have faith and belief inequally opposing powers Zoroastrianism characterizes itself as dualistic.
The teachings ofZarathustra (Zoroaster) appeared inPersia at some point during the period 1700-1800 BCE.[10][11] His wisdom became the basis of the religionZoroastrianism, and generally influenced the development of theIranian branch ofIndo-Iranian philosophy. Zarathustra was the first who treated the problem of evil in philosophical terms.[11][12] He is also believed to be one of the oldestmonotheists in the history of religion. He espoused an ethical philosophy based on the primacy ofgood thoughts (pendar-e-nik), good words (goftar-e-nik), and good deeds (kerdar-e-nik).[13]
The works of Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism had a significant influence onGreek philosophy andRoman philosophy. Severalancient Greek writers such asEudoxus of Cnidus andLatin writers such asPliny the Elder praised Zoroastrian philosophy as "the most famous and most useful".Plato learnt of Zoroastrian philosophy through Eudoxus and incorporated much of it into his ownPlatonic realism.[14] In the 3rd century BC, however,Colotes accused Plato'sThe Republic of plagiarizing parts of Zoroaster'sOn Nature, such as theMyth of Er.[15][16]
Manichaeism, founded byMani, was influential fromNorth Africa in the West, toChina in the East. Its influence subtly continues inWestern Christian thought via SaintAugustine of Hippo, who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism, which he passionately denounced in his writings, and whose writings continue to be influential among Catholic, Protestant and Orthodoxtheologians. An important principle of Manichaeism was itsdualistic nature.
The religious and philosophical teaching calledMazdakism, which its founder, Mazdak, regarded as a reformed and purified version ofZoroastrianism[17][18] displays remarkable influences fromManichaeism as well.[17]
Zurvanism is characterized by the element of itsfirst principle, which is time (Zurvan), as a primordial creator. According to Zaehner, Zurvanism appears to have three schools of thought, all with classical Zurvanism as a foundation:aesthetic,materialist, andfatalistic.
Aesthetic Zurvanism—apparently not as popular as thematerialistic kind—viewed Zurvan as undifferentiated time, which, under the influence of desire, dividedreason (a male principle) andconcupiscence (a female principle).
While Zoroaster'sOrmuzd created the universe with his thought,materialist Zurvanism challenged the concept that anything could be made out of nothing.
Fatalistic Zurvanism resulted from the doctrine of limited time with the implication that nothing could change this preordained course of the material universe and that the path of the astral bodies of the 'heavenly sphere' was representative of this preordained course. According to theMiddle Persian workMenog-i Khrad: "Ohrmazd allotted happiness to man, but if man did not receive it, it was owing to the extortion of these planets."
Jewish philosophy includes all philosophy carried out by Jews, both within theiroriginal homeland and in thediaspora.
The rise ofIslam led to the emergence of various Islamic philosophical schools of thought. Schools influenced bySufism involved esoteric philosophy, while theMu'tazili school (partly influenced byHellenistic philosophy) reconstructedrationalism, and theAsh'ari school reshaped logical and rational interpretation ofGod,justice,destiny and theuniverse.
ThePhilosophy of Illumination founded bySohrevardi argued that light operates at all levels and hierarchies of reality. Light produces immaterial and substantial lights, including immaterial intellects, human and animal souls and even 'dusky substances', such as bodies. Sohrevardi's works display extensive developments on the basis of Zoroastrian ideas and ancient Iranian thought.
Other schools of philosophy were centered on the works of individual authors during theIslamic Golden Age, withAverroism[19] andAvicennism being two of the most prominent such schools.
`Abdu'l-Bahá, son and successor of the founder of theBaháʼí Faith, has explained the Baháʼí philosophy in the workSome Answered Questions.[20]
{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
