Ancient Greek comedy (Ancient Greek:κωμῳδία,romanized: kōmōidía) was one of the final three principaldramatic forms in thetheatre of classical Greece; the others beingtragedy and thesatyr play. Greek comedy was distinguished from tragedy by itshappy endings and use of comically exaggeratedcharacter archetypes, the latter feature being the origin of the modern concept of thecomedy.Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods;Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven extant plays ofAristophanes; Middle Comedy is largely lost and preserved only in relatively short fragments by authors such asAthenaeus ofNaucratis; New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments ofMenander. A burlesque dramatic form that blended tragic and comic elements, known asphlyax play or hilarotragedy, developed in the Greek colonies ofMagna Graecia by the late 4th century BC.
The philosopherAristotle wrote in hisPoetics (c. 335 BC) that comedy is a representation of laughable people and involves some kind of blunder or ugliness which does not cause pain or disaster.[1]C. A. Trypanis wrote that comedy is the last of the great species of poetry Greece gave to the world.[2]
TheAlexandrine grammarians, and most likelyAristophanes of Byzantium in particular, seem to have been the first to divide Greek comedy into what became the canonical three periods:[3] Old Comedy (ἀρχαίαarchaía), Middle Comedy (μέσηmésē) and New Comedy (νέαnéa). These divisions appear to be largely arbitrary, and ancient comedy almost certainly developed constantly over the years.[4]
The most important Old Comic dramatist isAristophanes (born in 446 BC). His works, with their pungentpolitical satire and abundance ofsexual andscatologicalinnuendo, effectively define the genre today. Aristophanes lampooned the most important personalities and institutions of his day, as can be seen, for example, in his buffoonish portrayal ofSocrates inThe Clouds, and in his racy anti-war farceLysistrata. He was one of a large number[clarification needed] of comic poets working in Athens in the late 5th century, his most important contemporary rivals beingHermippus andEupolis.
The Old Comedy subsequently influenced later European writers such asRabelais,Cervantes,Swift, andVoltaire. In particular, they copied the technique of disguising a political attack as buffoonery.
The line between Old and Middle Comedy is not clearly marked chronologically,Aristophanes and others of the latest writers of the Old Comedy being sometimes regarded as the earliest Middle Comic poets. For ancient scholars, the term may have meant little more than "later than Aristophanes and his contemporaries, but earlier thanMenander". Middle Comedy is generally seen as differing from Old Comedy in three essential particulars: the role of the chorus was diminished to the point where it had no influence on the plot; public characters were not impersonated or personified onstage; and the objects of ridicule were general rather than personal, literary rather than political. For at least a time, mythological burlesque was popular among the Middle Comic poets. Stock characters of all sorts also emerge: courtesans, parasites, revellers, philosophers, boastful soldiers, and especially the conceited cook with his parade of culinary science.
Because no complete Middle Comic plays have been preserved, it is impossible to offer any real assessment of their literary value or "genius". But many Middle Comic plays appear to have been revived inSicily andMagna Graecia in this period, suggesting that they had considerable widespread literary and social influence.
New Comedy followed the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and lasted throughout the reign of theMacedonian rulers, ending about 260 BC.[6] It is comparable tosituation comedy andcomedy of manners.[4]The three best-known playwrights belonging to this genre areMenander,Philemon, andDiphilus.
The playwrights of the New Comedy genre built on the legacy from their predecessors, but adapted it to the portrayal of everyday life, rather than of public affairs.[7] The satirical and farcical element which featured so strongly in Aristophanes' comedies was increasingly abandoned, the de-emphasis of the grotesque—whether in the form of choruses, humour or spectacle—opening the way for greater representation of daily life and the foibles of recognisable character types.[8]
Apart from Diphilus, the New Comedians preferred the everyday world to mythological themes, coincidences to miracles or metamorphoses; and they peopled this world with a whole series of semi-realistic, if somewhat stereotypical figures,[8] who would become the stock characters of Western comedy: braggarts, the permissivefather figure and the stern father (senex iratus), young lovers, parasites,kind-hearted prostitutes, and cunning servants.[9] Their largely gentle comedy of manners drew on a vast array of dramatic devices, characters and situations their predecessors had developed: prologues to shape the audience's understanding of events, messengers' speeches to announce offstage action, descriptions of feasts, the complications of love, sudden recognitions, ex machina endings were all established techniques which playwrights exploited and evoked.[10] The new comedy depicted Athenian society and the social morality of the period, presenting it in attractive colors but making no attempt to criticize or improve it.[citation needed]
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In his own time, Philemon was perhaps the most successful among the New Comedy, regularly beating the younger figure of Menander in contests; but the latter would be the most highly esteemed by subsequent generations.[11] Menander's comedies not only provided their audience with a brief respite from reality, but also gave audiences an accurate, if not greatly detailed, picture of life,[12] leading an ancient critic to ask if life influenced Menander in the writing of his plays or if the case was vice versa.[13][14] Unlike earlier predecessors, Menander's comedies tended to centre on the fears and foibles of the ordinary man, his personal relationships, family life and social mishaps rather than politics and public life. His plays were also much less satirical than preceding comedies, being marked by a gentle, urbane tone,[15] a taste for good temper and good manners (if not necessarily for good morals).[12]
The human dimension of his characters was one of the strengths of Menander's plays, and perhaps his greatest legacy, through his use of these fairly stereotype characters to comment on human life and depict human folly and absurdity compassionately, with wit and subtlety.[16] An example of the moral reformations he offered (not always convincingly) is Cnemon from Menander's playDyskolos, whose objections to life suddenly fade after he was rescued from a well.[15] The fact that this character was not necessarily closed to reason makes him a character whom people can relate to.
Philemon's comedies tended to be smarter, and broader in tone, than Menander's;[11] while Diphilus used mythology as well as everyday life in his works.[17] The comedies of both survive only in fragments but their plays were translated and adapted byPlautus. Examples include Plautus'Asinaria andRudens. Based on the translation and adaptation of Diphilus' comedies by Plautus, one can conclude that he was skilled in the construction of his plots.
Substantial fragments of New Comedy have survived, but no complete plays. The most substantially preserved text is theDyskolos ("Difficult Man, Grouch") by Menander, discovered on a papyrus, and first published in 1958. TheCairo Codex (found in 1907) also preserves long sections of plays includingEpitrepontes ("Men at Arbitration"),Samia ("The Girl from Samos"), andPerikeiromene ("The Girl who had her Hair Shorn").[citation needed] Much of the rest of our knowledge of New Comedy is derived from theLatin adaptations by Plautus andTerence.
Horace claimed Menander as a model for his own gentle brand ofRoman satire.[18]
The New Comedy influenced much of Western European literature, primarily through Plautus and Terence: in particular the comic drama ofShakespeare andBen Jonson,Congreve, andWycherley,[19] and, in France,Molière.[20]
The 5-act structure later to be found in modern plays can first be seen in Menander's comedies. Where in comedies of previous generations there were choral interludes, there was dialogue with song. The action of his plays had breaks, the situations in them were conventional and coincidences were convenient, thus showing the smooth and effective development of his plays.
Much of contemporary romantic and situational comedy descends from the New Comedy sensibility, in particular generational comedies such asAll in the Family andMeet the Parents.
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Some dramatists overlap into more than one period.
