During his lifetime, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. The tendency in his essays to digress into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as detrimental to proper style, rather than as an innovation; moreover, his declaration that "I am myself the matter of my book" was viewed by his contemporaries as self-indulgent. In time, however, Montaigne came to be recognised as embodying the spirit of critical thought and open inquiry that began to emerge around that time. He is best known for hissceptical remark, "Que sçay-je ?" ("What do I know?", inMiddle French; "Que sais-je ?" in modern French).
Montaigne was born in theGuyenne (Aquitaine) region of France, on the family estateChâteau de Montaigne in a town now calledSaint-Michel-de-Montaigne, nearBordeaux. The family was very wealthy. His great-grandfather Ramon Felipe Eyquem had made a fortune as a herring merchant and had bought the estate in 1477, thereby becoming the Lord of Montaigne. His father, Pierre Eyquem, Seigneur of Montaigne, was the mayor of Bordeaux and later aFrench Catholic soldier in Italy for a time.[4]
Although there were several families having thepatronym "Eyquem" in Guyenne, his father's family is thought to have had some degree ofMarrano (Spanish and Portuguese Jewish) origins,[6] while his mother, Antoinette López de Villanueva, was a convert to Protestantism.[7] His maternal grandfather, Pedro López,[8] fromZaragoza, came from a wealthyMarrano (Sephardic Jewish) family that had converted to Catholicism.[9][10][11][12] His maternal grandmother, Honorette Dupuy, was from a Catholic family inGascony, France.[13]
Although Montaigne's mother lived nearby for much of his life – and even outlived him – she is mentioned only twice in his essays. Montaigne's relationship with his father, however, is often reflected on and discussed in the essays.[9]
Montaigne's education began in early childhood and followed apedagogical plan that his father had developed, refined by the advice of the latter'shumanist friends. Soon after his birth, Montaigne was brought to a small cottage, where he lived for three years in the sole company of a peasant family; according to the elder Montaigne, this was to "draw the boy close to the people, and to the life conditions of the people, who need our help".[14] After these first spartan years, Montaigne was returned to the château.
Another pedagogical objective was forLatin to become Montaigne's first language. His intellectual education was assigned to a German tutor (a doctor named Horstanus, who did not speak French). His father hired only servants who could speak Latin, and they also were given strict orders always to speak to the boy inLatin. The same rule applied to his mother, father, and servants, who were obliged to use only Latin words that he employed; thus they acquired a knowledge of the language that Montaigne's tutor taught him. His Latin education was accompanied by constant intellectual and spiritual stimulation. He was acquainted withGreek through a pedagogical method that employed games, conversation, and exercises with solitary meditation, rather than more traditional books.[15]
The atmosphere of his upbringing engendered in Montaigne a spirit of "liberty and delight" that he would later describe as making him "relish...duty by an unforced will, and of my own voluntary motion...without any severity or constraint". His father instructed a musician to wake him every morning, playing one instrument or another;[16] anepinettier (a player of a type ofzither) was a constant companion to Montaigne and his tutor, playing tunes to alleviate boredom and tiredness.
Around 1539, Montaigne was sent to study at a highly-regardedboarding school in Bordeaux, theCollege of Guienne, then under the direction of the greatest Latin scholar of the era,George Buchanan; there Montaigne mastered the entire curriculum by the age of thirteen. He finished the first phase of his studies at the College in 1546.[17] He then began to study law and entered a career in the local legal system.[18] (Hisalma mater remains unknown, since little is certain about his activities from 1546 to 1557.)
While serving at the Bordeaux Parlement, he became a close friend of the humanist poetÉtienne de La Boétie, whose death in 1563 deeply affected Montaigne. Donald M. Frame, in the introduction to his bookThe Complete Essays of Montaigne, makes the following suggestion: because of Montaigne's "imperious need to communicate" after losing Étienne, he began theEssais as a new "means of communication", and "the reader takes the place of the dead friend".[20]
The most significant event of this period in Montaigne's life was his meeting, at the age of 25, withÉtienne de La Boétie. At the time, La Boétie was serving in the Parliament of Bordeaux. He was 28 years old—and would die at 32. Orphaned early, married, and entrusted with sensitive political missions by his colleagues (notably the pacification of Guyenne during the 1561 unrest), he was more mature and more established than Montaigne. His best-known work isDiscourse on Voluntary Servitude. Montaigne had initially intended to include it in theEssays, but refrained when Protestant circles began interpreting the work as an attack on the Catholic monarchy.
Montaigne and La Boétie's friendship became legendary. In the first edition of theEssays, Montaigne wrote:
If you press me to say why I loved him, I can say no more than because it was he, because it was I.[21]
This famous phrase appeared in the posthumous 1595 edition known as the "Bordeaux Copy." Montaigne had added it in the margins of his personal 1588 edition—first "because it was he," then in different ink, "because it was I."
Although sociable and surrounded by many friends, Montaigne considered this friendship exceptional—one that only occurs "once every three centuries":
Our souls mingled and blended with each other so completely that they effaced the seam that had joined them.[22]
Montaigne's admiration for La Boétie's intellectual greatness was matched by deep cultural affinities and a shared ideological harmony, especially in the context of the French Wars of Religion.
The greatest man I have known... for the natural goodness and capacity of his soul and for a well-born upbringing, was Étienne de La Boétie. It was truly a full soul, and of a beautiful composition in every respect; a classical soul, which would have produced great achievements if fate had allowed it. For it had enriched those fine natural gifts with study and learning.[23]
But just four years after their meeting, La Boétie died—likely of plague or tuberculosis—in 1563. During his three days of agony, he displayed a strength of soul that deeply moved Montaigne. Montaigne first described this in a letter to his father, then in aDiscourse published in 1571 as a postface to La Boétie's collected works.
There is no action or thought in which I do not miss him. I was already so habituated and accustomed to being second everywhere, that it seems to me I am no longer whole.[24]
Montaigne then sought to perpetuate his friend's memory—first by publishing his writings addressed to prominent figures, and then by continuing their dialogue internally, a dialogue that would ultimately become theEssays.
Montaigne married Françoise de la Cassaigne in 1565, probably in anarranged marriage. She was the daughter and niece of wealthy merchants in Toulouse and Bordeaux. The couple had six daughters, but only the second-born, Léonor, survived infancy.[25] He wrote very little about the relationship with his wife, and little is known about their marriage. Of his daughter Léonor, he wrote: "All my children die at nurse; but Léonore, our only daughter, who has escaped this misfortune, has reached the age of six and more, without having been punished, the indulgence of her mother aiding, except in words, and those very gentle ones."[26] His daughter married François de la Tour and later Charles de Gamaches. She had a daughter with each husband.[27]
After a request from his father, Montaigne began work on the first translation of theCatalan monkRaymond Sebond's bookTheologia naturalis ("Natural Theology"), which he published a year after his father's death in 1568. In 1595, Sebond's Prologue was put on theIndex Librorum Prohibitorum ("Index of Forbidden Books"), because of its declaration that the Bible is not the only source ofrevealed truth. Montaigne also published a posthumous edition of the works of his friend Boétie.[28]
In 1570, he moved back to the family estate, the Château de Montaigne, which he had inherited. He thus became the Lord of Montaigne. Around this time, he was seriously injured in a riding accident on the château grounds, when one of his mounted companions collided with him at full speed, throwing Montaigne from his horse and briefly knocking him unconscious.[29] His recovery took weeks or months, and this close brush with death apparently affected him greatly, as he discussed it at length in writings during the following years. Soon after the accident, he relinquished his magistracy in Bordeaux; his first child was born (and died a few months later); and by 1571, he had completely retired from public life to thetower of the château – his so-called "citadel" – where he almost fully isolated himself from all social and family matters. Sealed in his library, which contained a collection of some 1,500 volumes,[30] he began work on the writings that would later be compiled into hisEssais ("Essays"), first published in 1580. On the day of his 38th birthday, as he began this almost ten-year period of self-imposed seclusion, he had the following inscription placed on the crown of the bookshelves in his work chamber:
In the year of Christ 1571, at the age of thirty-eight, on the last day of February, his birthday, Michael de Montaigne, long weary of the servitude of the court and of public employments, while still entire, retired to the bosom of the learned virgins, where in calm and freedom from all cares he will spend what little remains of his life, now more than half run out. If the fates permit, he will complete this abode, this sweet ancestral retreat; and he has consecrated it to his freedom, tranquility, and leisure.[31]
Château de Montaigne, a house built on the land once owned by Montaigne's family. His original family home no longer exists, although thetower in which he wrote still stands.
The Tour de Montaigne (Montaigne's tower), where Montaigne's library was located, remains mostly unchanged since the sixteenth century.
During theWars of Religion in France, Montaigne, a Roman Catholic,[32] acted as a moderating force;[33] he was respected both by the CatholicKing Henry III and the ProtestantHenry of Navarre, who later converted to Catholicism.
In 1578, Montaigne, whose health had always been excellent, began to suffer from painfulkidney stones, a tendency he had inherited from his father's family. Throughout this illness, he avoided doctors and drugs.[4] From 1580 to 1581, Montaigne traveled in France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Italy – partly in search of a cure – establishing himself at the commune ofBagni di Lucca in Italy, where he visited the springs. His journey was also apilgrimage to theHoly House of Loreto, to which he donated a silver relief, considering himself fortunate that it would be hung on a wall in the shrine; the relief depicted his wife, their daughter, and him kneeling before the Madonna.[34] He maintained a journal in which he recorded regional differences and customs,[35] in addition to a variety of personal episodes, including the dimensions of the kidney stones that he succeeded in expelling. This journal was published nearly two hundred years later, in 1774, after its discovery in a trunk displayed in his tower.[36]
During a visit to the Vatican that Montaigne described in his journal, theEssais were examined bySisto Fabri, who served asMaster of the Sacred Palace underPope Gregory XIII. After Fabri examined theEssais, the text was returned to Montaigne on 20 March 1581. Montaigne had apologised for references to the pagan concept offortuna, as well as for writing favorably aboutJulian the Apostate and heretical poets; Montaigne was released to follow his own conscience in making alterations to the text.[37]
Journey to Italy by Michel de Montaigne 1580–1581Portrait of 1587 byÉtienne Martellange
While in the city ofLucca in 1581, Montaigne learned that he had been elected mayor of Bordeaux, like his father before him. He therefore returned to the city and served in this office. He was re-elected in 1583 and served until 1585, again moderating between Catholics and Protestants. Thebubonic plague pandemic broke out in Bordeaux toward the end of his second term in office, in 1585. In 1586, the plague and the French Wars of Religion prompted him to leave his château for two years.[4]
Montaigne continued to extend, revise, and oversee the publication of theEssais. In 1588, he wrote its third book; he also metMarie de Gournay, an author who admired his work, and who later edited and published it. Montaigne later referred to her as his adopted daughter.[4]
When King Henry III was assassinated in 1589, Montaigne was anxious to promote a compromise that would end the bloodshed, despite his aversion to the cause of the Reformation; he therefore supported Henry of Navarre, who would later become King Henry IV. Montaigne's position associated him with thepolitiques, the establishment movement that prioritised peace, national unity, and royal authority over religious allegiance.[38]
Portrait of Montaigne c. 1590 by an anonymous artist
Montaigne died in 1592 at the age of 59, at the Château de Montaigne, from aperitonsillar abscess. In his case, the disease "brought about paralysis of the tongue",[39] especially difficult for a person who once said that "the most fruitful and natural play of the mind is conversation. I find it sweeter than any other action in life; and if I were forced to choose, I think I would rather lose my sight than my hearing and voice."[40] Remaining in possession of all his other faculties, he requested a Mass, and he died during the celebration of that Mass.[41]
Montaigne was buried near the château. His remains were later moved to the church of Saint Antoine at Bordeaux. This church no longer exists – it became theConvent des Feuillants, which has since disappeared as well.[42]
Montaigne's humanism is expressed in hisEssais (published in 1580), a large collection of short, subjective essays on various topics; these essays were inspired by his studies in theclassics, especially the works ofPlutarch andLucretius.[43] Montaigne's stated goal was to describe humans, and especially himself, with complete frankness.
Inspired by considering the lives and ideals of leading figures of his age, Montaigne finds the most basic feature ofhuman nature to be its great variety and volatility. He describes his own poor memory; his ability to solve problems and mediate conflicts without getting deeply involved emotionally; his disdain for the human pursuit of enduring fame; and his attempts to detach himself from worldly things to prepare for his approaching death. He also writes about his disgust with the religious conflicts of the time. He believed that humans are unable to attain true certainty. The longest of his essays,Apology for Raymond Sebond, marks his adoption ofPyrrhonism[44] and contains the famous motto, "What do I know?"
Montaigne considered marriage necessary for raising children, but he disliked feelings ofpassionate love, because he saw them as detrimental tofreedom. In education, he favoredconcrete examples and experience overabstract knowledge that is intended to be accepted uncritically. His essay "On the Education of Children" is dedicated toDiana of Foix.
TheEssais exerted a significant influence on bothFrench andEnglish literature, shaping thought as well as style.[45]Francis Bacon'sEssays, published more than a decade later (first in 1597), are usually assumed to reflect direct influence by Montaigne's collection, and Montaigne is cited by Bacon alongside other classical sources in later essays.[46]
Although not a scientist, Montaigne made observations on topics inpsychology.[47] In the essays, he developed and explained his observations on these themes. His thoughts and ideas covered subjects such as thought, motivation, fear, happiness, child education, experience, andhuman action. Montaigne's ideas have influenced psychology and are a part of its rich history.
Among the psychological topics that Montaigne addressed was the education of children.[47] His essays "On the Education of Children", "On Pedantry", and "On Experience" explain his views on this subject.[48]: 61, 62, 70 Some of these views are still relevant today.[49]
Montaigne's views on child education were in opposition to common practices during his time.[48]: 63 : 67 He found fault with both the content and the style of teaching.[48]: 62 Much education at the time focused on reading the classics and learning through books.[48]: 67 Montaigne disagreed with learning only through books. He believed that children must be educated in a variety of ways. He also disagreed with the way that information was presented to students – encouraging them to take educational content as absolute truth. Students were denied an opportunity toquestion information. By contrast, Montaigne generally believed that effective learning required a student to take new information and make it their own:
Let the tutor make his charge pass everything through a sieve and lodge nothing in his head on mere authority and trust: let not Aristotle's principles be principles to him any more than those of theStoics orEpicureans. Let this variety of ideas be set before him; he will choose if he can; if not, he will remain in doubt. Only the fools are certain and assured. "For doubting pleases me no less than knowing." [Dante]. For if he embracesXenophon's andPlato's opinions by his own reasoning, they will no longer be theirs, they will be his. He who follows another follows nothing. He finds nothing; indeed he seeks nothing. "We are not under a king; let each one claim his own freedom." [Seneca]. ... He must imbibe their way of thinking, not learn their precepts. And let him boldly forget, if he wants, where he got them, but let him know how to make them his own. Truth and reason are common to everyone, and no more belong to the man who first spoke them than to the man who says them later. It is no more according to Plato than according to me, since he and I see it in the same way. The bees plunder the flowers here and there, but afterward they make of them honey, which is all and purely their own, and no longer thyme and marjoram.[50][51]
Fundamentally, Montaigne believed that the selection of a good tutor was important for a student's becoming well educated.[48]: 66 Education by a tutor should be conducted at the student's pace.[48]: 67 Montaigne believed that a tutor should be in dialogue with a student, allowing the student to speak first. A tutor also should allow for discussion and debate. Such dialogue was meant to create an environment in which students would teach themselves. They would be able to recognize their own mistakes and correct them as needed:[52]
Let him be made to understand that to confess the flaw he discovers in his own argument, though it be still unnoticed except by himself, is an act of judgment and sincerity, which are principal qualities he seeks… that to change his mind and correct himself, to give up a bad position at the height of his ardor are rare, strong, and philosophical qualities.
Individualised learning was integral to his theory of child education. He argued that a student combines previously-known information with what is newly learned, and thereby forms a unique perspective on the new information.[53]: 356 Montaigne also believed that tutors should encourage student's natural curiosity and allow them to question things.[48]: 68 He postulated that successful students were encouraged to question new information and study it for themselves, rather than merely accepting what they had heard from experts on a given topic. Montaigne believed that a child's curiosity could serve as an important teaching tool when the child is allowed to explore subjects that genuinely interest them.[citation needed]
In addition, Montaigne believed that experience was a key element of learning. Tutors needed to teach students through experience, rather than through rote memorization as often practised with book learning.[48]: 62 : 67 Montaigne argued that students would become passive adults, uncritically obedient and unable to think independently.[53]: 354 No important knowledge would be retained, and no skills would be acquired.[48]: 62 Montaigne believed that learning through experience was superior to learning through books.[49] For this reason, he encouraged tutors to educate their students through practice, travel, and human interaction. By doing so, he argued, students would become active learners, who could claim knowledge for themselves.[citation needed]
Montaigne's views on child education continue to be influential today. Elements of his thinking have been integrated into modern educational practices. In summary, he argued against the popular teaching style of his time, encouraging individualised learning instead. He believed in the importance of experience over book learning and memorization. Ultimately, Montaigne asserted that the purpose of education was to teach a student how to lead a successful life by practising an active and socially interactive lifestyle.[53]: 355
Thinkers exploring ideas similar to Montaigne's includeErasmus,Thomas More,John Fisher andGuillaume Budé, who all worked about fifty years before Montaigne's time.[54] Many of Montaigne's Latin quotations come from Erasmus' collectionAdagia, and notably all of his quotations fromSocrates.Plutarch may be Montaigne's strongest influence in terms of substance and style;[55] there are more than 500 quotations from Plutarch in Montaigne'sEssais.[56]
SinceEdward Capell first proposed the idea in 1780, scholars have pointed to Montaigne as an influence onWilliam Shakespeare, who would have had access toJohn Florio's translation of Montaigne'sEssais, published in English in 1603; a scene in Shakespeare's playThe Tempest "follows the wording of Florio [translatingOf Cannibals] so closely that his indebtedness is unmistakable".[57] Most parallels between the two writers may be explained, however, as literarycommonplaces;[58] relative to works byMiguel de Cervantes and Shakespeare, similarities with writers in other countries could be due to shared study of Latin moral and philosophical writers, such asSeneca the Younger,Horace,Ovid, andVirgil.
Much ofBlaise Pascal's scepticism in hisPensées has traditionally been attributed to his reading Montaigne.[59] Pascal listed Montaigne andEpictetus as the two philosophers with whom he was most familiar.[60]
The English essayistWilliam Hazlitt expressed unlimited admiration for Montaigne, exclaiming that "he was the first who had the courage to say as an author what he felt as a man. ... He was neither a pedant nor a bigot. ... In treating of men and manners, he spoke of them as he found them, not according to preconceived notions and abstract dogmas".[61] Beginning most clearly with essays in thefamiliar style in his own collectionTable-Talk, Hazlitt sought to follow Montaigne's example.[62]
The American philosopherRalph Waldo Emerson chose "Montaigne; or, the Skeptic" as the subject of one lecture in a series titledRepresentative Men, which included Shakespeare and Plato. In "The Skeptic", Emerson said of his experience reading Montaigne that "It seemed to me as if I had myself written the book, in some former life, so sincerely it spoke to my thought and experience." The German philosopherFriedrich Nietzsche evaluated Montaigne as follows: "That such a man wrote has truly augmented the joy of living on this Earth".[63] The French criticCharles Augustin Sainte-Beuve advised that "to restore lucidity and proportion to our judgments, let us read every evening a page of Montaigne."[64]Stefan Zweig drew inspiration from one of Montaigne's quotations for the title of hispolemical essayA Conscience Against Violence.[65]
The American philosopherEric Hoffer employed Montaigne in both style and thought. In his memoir,Truth Imagined, he said of Montaigne that "He was writing about me. He knew my innermost thoughts." The British novelistJohn Cowper Powys expressed admiration for Montaigne's philosophy in his books,Suspended Judgements (1916) andThe Pleasures of Literature (1938).[66] The American theoristJudith N. Shklar introduces her bookOrdinary Vices (1984) as follows: "It is only if we step outside the divinely ruled moral universe that we can really put our minds to the common ills we inflict upon one another each day. That is what Montaigne did and that is why he is the hero of this book. In spirit he is on every one of its pages...".[67]
The 20th-century literary criticErich Auerbach called Montaigne the first modern man. In his bookMimesis (in Chapter 12), Auerbach writes that "Among all his contemporaries he had the clearest conception of the problem of man's self-orientation; that is, the task of making oneself at home in existence without fixed points of support".[68]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2024)
On 20 November 2019, theMusée d'Aquitaine announced that human remains found in the basement a year earlier might belong to Montaigne.[69] Investigation of these remains, postponed because of theCOVID-19 pandemic, resumed in September 2020.[70]
^abFoglia, Marc; Ferrari, Emiliano (18 August 2004)."Michel de Montaigne". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 ed.).
^Robert P. Amico,The Problem of the Criterion, Rowman & Littlefield, 1995, p. 42. Primary source: Montaigne,Essais, II, 12: "Pour juger des apparences que nous recevons des subjets, il nous faudroit un instrument judicatoire; pour verifier cet instrument, il nous y faut de la demonstration; pour verifier la demonstration, un instrument : nous voilà au rouet [To judge of the appearances that we receive of subjects, we had need have a judicatorie instrument: to verifie this instrument we should have demonstration; and to approve demonstration, an instrument; thus are we ever turning round]" (transl. byCharles Cotton).
^His anecdotes are 'casual' only in appearance; Montaigne writes: 'Neither my anecdotes nor my quotations are always employed simply as examples, for authority, or for ornament...They often carry, off the subject under discussion, the seed of a richer and more daring matter, and they resonate obliquely with a more delicate tone,' Michel de Montaigne,Essais, Pléiade, Paris (ed. A. Thibaudet) 1937, Bk. 1, ch. 40, p. 252 (tr. Charles Rosen)
^Sophie Jama,L'Histoire Juive de Montaigne [The Jewish History of Montaigne], Paris, Flammarion, 2001, p. 76.
^"His mother was a Jewish Protestant, his father a Catholic who achieved wide culture as well as a considerable fortune."Civilization, Kenneth Clark, (Harper & Row: 1969), p. 161.
^abGoitein, Denise R (2008)."Montaigne, Michel de".Encyclopaedia Judaica. The Gale Group. Retrieved6 March 2014 – via Jewish Virtual Library.
^Introduction: Montaigne's Life and Times, inApology for Raymond Sebond, By Michel de Montaigne (Roger Ariew), (Hackett: 2003), p. iv: "Michel de Montaigne was born in 1533 at the chateau de Montagine (about 30 miles east of Bordeaux), the son of Pierre Eyquem, Seigneur de Montaigne, and Antoinette de Louppes (or López), who came from a wealthy (originally Iberian) Jewish family".
^"...the family of Montaigne's mother, Antoinette de Louppes (López) of Toulouse, was of Spanish Jewish origin...." –The Complete Essays of Montaigne, translated byDonald M. Frame, "Introduction," p. viiff., Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1989ISBN0804704864
^Hutchins, Robert Maynard; Hazlitt, W. Carew, eds. (1952).The Essays of Michel Eyquem de Montaigne. Great Books of the Western World. Vol. twenty–five. Trans. Charles Cotton. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. v.He had his son awakened each morning by 'the sound of a musical instrument'
^Philippe Desan (ed.),The Oxford Handbook of Montaigne, Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 60.
^Bakewell, Sarah (2010).How to Live – or – A Life of Montaigne in One Question and Twenty Attempts at an Answer. London: Vintage. p. 15–23.ISBN978-1446450901.
^Gilbert de Botton and Francis Pottiée-Sperry, "A la recherche de la 'librairie' de Montaigne,"Bulletin du bibliophile, 2 (1997), 254-80
^As cited by Richard L. Regosin, 'Montaigne and His Readers', in Denis Hollier (ed.)A New History of French Literature, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London 1995, pp. 248–252 [249]. The Latin original runs: 'An. Christi 1571 aet. 38, pridie cal. mart., die suo natali, Mich. Montanus, servitii aulici et munerum publicorum jamdudum pertaesus, dum se integer in doctarum virginum recessit sinus, ubi quietus et omnium securus (quan)tillum in tandem superabit decursi multa jam plus parte spatii: si modo fata sinunt exigat istas sedes et dulces latebras, avitasque, libertati suae, tranquillitatique, et otio consecravit.' as cited in Helmut Pfeiffer, 'Das Ich als Haushalt: Montaignes ökonomische Politik', in Rudolf Behrens, Roland Galle (eds.)Historische Anthropologie und Literatur: Romanistische Beträge zu einem neuen Paradigma der Literaturwissenschaft, Königshausen und Neumann, Würzburg, 1995 pp. 69–90 [75]
^Desan, Philippe (2016).The Oxford Handbook of Montaigne. p. 233.
^Montaigne, Michel de,Essays of Michel de Montaigne, tr.Charles Cotton, ed.William Carew Hazlitt, 1877, "The Life of Montaigne" in v. 1. n.p., Kindle edition.
^"The Autobiography of Michel De Montaigne", translated, introduced, and edited by Marvin Lowenthal, David R. Godine Publishing, p. 165
^"Biographical Note", Encyclopædia Britannica "Great Books of the Western World", Vol. 25, p. vi "Montaigne"
^Bakewell, Sarah.How to Live – or – A Life of Montaigne in One Question and Twenty Attempts at an Answer (2010), pp. 325–326, 365 n. 325.
^Montaigne, Michel de (1966). "Of the education of children".The Complete Essays of Montaigne (Reprinted from "Selected Essays" with the permission of the publisher, Walter J. Black, Inc.). Translated by Frame, Donald M. Chicago: The Great Books Foundation. pp. 31–32.
^de Montaigne, Michel (1965).The Complete Essays of Montaigne. Stanford University Press. p. 114.ISBN9780804704861.
^abcWorley, Virginia.Painting With Impasto: Metaphors, Mirrors, and Reflective Regression in Montagne's 'Of the Education of Children.'Educational Theory, June 2012, Vol. 62 Issue 3, pp. 343–370.
^Blaise Pascal Thoughts, Letters, and Minor Works. Cosimo. 2007. p. 393.
^Quoted from Hazlitt's "On the Periodical Essayists" in Park, Roy,Hazlitt and the Spirit of the Age, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971, pp. 172–173.
^Kinnaird, John,William Hazlitt: Critic of Power, Columbia University Press, 1978, p. 274.
^Nietzsche,Untimely Meditations, Chapter 3, "Schopenhauer as Educator", Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 135
^Sainte-Beuve, "Montaigne", "Literary and Philosophical Essays", Ed. Charles W. Eliot, New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1938.
^Dove, Richard, ed. (1992).German writers and politics 1918–1939. Warwick studies in the European humanities (1. publ ed.). Houndmills: MacMillan.ISBN978-0333532621.
O'Brien, John (2019), Jennings, Jeremy; Moriarty, Michael (eds.), "Montaigne",The Cambridge History of French Thought, Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–82
