TheMexican nobility were ahereditarynobility of Mexico, with specific privileges and obligations determined in the variouspolitical systems that historically ruled over the Mexican territory.
The term is used in reference to various groups throughout the entirety of Mexican history, from formerlyrulingindigenous families of thepre-Columbian states of present-day Mexico, tonoble Mexican families ofSpanish (as well asMestizo) and other European descent, which includeconquistadors and theirdescendants (ennobled by KingPhilip II in 1573), untitled noble families of Mexico, and holders oftitles of nobility acquired during theViceroyalty of the New Spain (1521–1821), theFirst Mexican Empire (1821–1823), and theSecond Mexican Empire (1862–1867); as well as bearers of titles and other nobleprerogatives granted by foreign powers who have settled in Mexico.
ThePolitical Constitution of Mexico has prohibited the State from recognizing anytitles of nobility since 1917. The presentUnited Mexican States does not issue or recognize titles of nobility or any hereditary prerogatives and honors. Informally, however, a Mexican aristocracy remains a part of Mexican culture and itshierarchical society.
TheMexica,Maya,Olmec,Zapotec,Mixtec,Purépecha,Tlaxcaltec, and many otherIndigenous peoples of present-day Mexico developed strong hierarchical societies based on hereditary privileges and obligations which were passed down to individuals in regards to the historical roles played by their ancestors in politics, war and religion. Society was firmly divided between the ruling elites and the governed masses, often making use of specific royal titles likeTlatoani,Tlatoque orCazonci, in reference to rulers and members of ruling families. The organization of members of noble families in military orders (as theeagle andjaguar warriors), as well as in political functions (ascalpixques), derived in the establishment of a hereditary aristocracy with similar characteristics to those found in other parts of the World, often using titles like that ofPipiltin orPilli in reference to individuals of noble lineage.[citation needed]
When the Spanish first arrived in present-day Mexico (1518), indigenous rulers and nobles headed the defense of their territories against the invaders, soon after signingpeace treaties and alliances to ensure the survival of their people. In this process, many indigenous peoples ended up participating in the military conquests of theSpanish Empire, gaining recognition of their ancient privileges as well as earning new ones due to their merits in the conquest of the Americas. In accordance to Spanish tradition under theHabsburg dynasty, theCrown of Castile recognized the pre-existing social organization of the native peoples and assimilated their ancient elites to the new regime, often offering them the same conditions as nobles of Spanish extraction.[1] In this way, the Spaniards respected the native systems and added to them, sometimes resulting in many unions between Aztec and Spanish nobility.[citation needed] One example is the marriage between Agustin Moctezuma,cacique of Chilapa and a direct descendant fromMoctezuma II. and several otherMexica kings, with María Antonia Guerrero Dávila, the heiress of theMayorazgo of Guerrero, and aunt of theMarquesa de Villar del Águila.[2] To this day, Mexican aristocrats take pride not only in their noble Spanish ancestors but also in being descendants of the ancient kings of their country.[3]
During Spanish domain, indigenous nobles were referred to ascaciques (term imported from theAntilles), maintaining political relevance as rulers of therepúblicas de indios (self-governed indigenous states), as well as receiving access to educational institutions (such as theJesuit colleges and theRoyal and Pontifical University of Mexico), as well as accessing Spanish institutions of organized nobility (like theSpanish military orders). At the time, religious convents were intended for specific social and ethnic groups, being the convents ofindias cacicas some of the most privileged (such as theCorpus Christi convent inMexico City). Nevertheless, the succession laws of Spanish tradition slowly permeated theAmerindian traditions, altering access to this elite class to patrilineal descendants of ancient rulers, in opposition to the mixed-lineal descent of their ancient traditions.[citation needed]
While numerous indigenous families and individuals were recognized as nobles by theCrown of Castile, certain populations who were specially active in the conquest and colonization of what was later known as theNew Spain were also distinguished with collective nobility, this included theTlaxcalan andQuauhquecholan peoples, who collectively gained the condition ofhidalgos, a privilege that had only been received by theBasque people of theIberian Peninsula. Many of these nobles resettled into western and northern Mexico to help pacify tribes there.[citation needed]
SomeAmerindian nobles, like theMixtecVillagómez family, were among the richest landowners in theNew Spain, retaining their Mixtec identity, speaking the Mixtec language and even keeping a collection of valuable Mixtecan documents. Nevertheless, most indigenous nobles lost their privileges at the fall of theSpanish Empire,[4] losing all recognition, as with all Mexican nobles, with the birth of the modernMexican Republic.[citation needed]
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Amongst the descendants of thepre-Columbian rulers of present-day Mexico who received special distinctions under Spanish rule, none were more privileged than the descendants of EmperorMoctezuma II of theMexica. The Emperor's son,Don Pedro de Moctezuma Tlacahuepan, formed amayorazgo and settled inSeville, where his eldest grandson received the titles ofCount of Moctezuma (later elevated toDuke of Moctezuma,Grandee of Spain, becoming part of theSpanish nobility),Viscount of Ilucán,Lord ofMonterrojano, as well as the investiture asKnight of theOrder of Santiago. In 1696, the husband of the 3rd Countess of Moctezuma was namedViceroy of theNew Spain, being createdDuke of Atrisco (orAtlixco) in 1704. Other historical members of the family include DoñaIsabel de Moctezuma, DoñaFrancisca de Moctezuma, Princess ofEcatepec, Don Manuel Holgado-Moctezuma, 1stMarquess of Moctezuma, Doña María Isabel de Moctezuma, 1stMarchioness of La Liseda, Don Vicente de Moctezuma, 9thMarquess of Cerralbo, Don Pedro Tesifón de Moctezuma (knight of theOrder of Santiago), Don Joaquín Gines de Oca Moctezuma y Mendoza (who received theGrandeza de España fromCharles III of Spain), amongst others. It is noteworthy that theHouse of Moctezuma came to be counted with the great noble houses of Spain, establishing family relationships with them; as an example, from Doña María Isabel Francisca de Zaldívar y Castilla, a descendant of the Tlatoani as well asPedro I of Castile. Only they and theInca royal house (with theBorja-Loyola Inca) would come to have these strong levels of prestige in the high nobility of theSpanish Empire.[5] The modern-dayKingdom of Spain still legally recognizes all of these titles, despite theMexican Republic opposing all recognition. In addition to the titles and other privileges the KingCharles I of Spain (also EmperorCharles V of theHoly Roman Empire) offered the descendants of EmperorMoctezuma II a compensation of five-hundredducats to be paid every year inperpetuity for the use by the capital city of water sources and lumber in their private estate inMexico City. This payment was only interrupted in 1938 during the presidency ofAbelardo L. Rodríguez, being contested until this day by theCountess of Miravalle and other notable descendants.[6] The present Ambassador of Mexico to the United States of America,Esteban Moctezuma,[7] is descended from this family.[8]
TheSpanish conquest of present-day Mexico brought with it the implementation of its political, religious, economical and social system, which included the legal division of society betweennobles andplebeians ("sociedad estamental", seeEstates of the realm), a system which subsisted during the entirety of Spanish rule (in present-day Spain the distinction was only abolished at the second half of the 19th century). In addition to the pre-existing families belonging to ancientindigenous nobility, new ones were added, including European families whose nobility was pre-existing prior to their arrival to the Americas, and others whose nobility was gained through the available resources of the day, including participation in the conquest, founding and settling of theIndies and thus became the eliteHidalgos de Indias (as determined in theOrdenanzas deSegovia, promulgated by KingPhilip II in 1573).[9] In this process, the conquistadors, founders, first settlers, and all their male but also female descendants, received recognition of the same noble condition as their European and indigenous counterparts ("hijosdalgo y personas nobles de linaje y solar conoçido"),[9] forming a diverse and multicultural elite that has been known to historians as "Nobleza de Indias", or "Nobility of the Indies". Nobles from both ethnic extractions shared territorial, political and military power, and participated together in religious and public ceremonies, nevertheless, marriages between both groups where rare after the 16th century, with both units responding to different interests and unique set of traditions. In most cases, the "noble class" was formed by provincialhidalgos of Spanish extraction who held local political and military power, and whose fortunes varied greatly from one territory to another, depending on the local resources and opportunities for production and commerce.
Thehacienda was the archetypical symbol of the power of the "Nobleza de Indias", although some even more privileged nobles also held ownership of urban palaces as well as extensive cattle-ranches and mines (at the 18th century,silver mines in theNew Spain had surpassed thePeruvians as the most productive in the World). The intricacies of this society were described byPrussian scientist and explorerAlexander von Humboldt in his "Political Essay of the Kingdom of theNew Spain".[10]
Most nobles had the status ofhidalgos (untitled nobles), whilst a number no greater than one hundred and twenty individuals were granted higher-ranking titles of nobility during the three hundred years of Spanish rule known then astítulos de Castilla (or "titles of Castile"), including those ofViscount,Count,Marquess andDuke. The title ofSeñor (equivalent toLord) was often used informally by holders ofencomiendas, specially during the 16th century, although there is no proof that such a title was ever explicitly granted by theCrown.Knighthoods of Spanish military orders (Order of Santiago,Alcántara,Calatrava andMontesa) where also granted to members of the nobility, and were less rare at the end of the 18th century, although they could not be considered entirely common.[11] Knights of foreign orders of nobility (like theOrder of Saint John or theOrder of Christ) were also existent but even rarer than their Spanish equivalents.
The first title granted to a settler in the kingdom ofNew Spain was that ofMarqués del Valle de Oaxaca (Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca), received by conquistadorHernán Cortés, who was also knighted in theOrder of Santiago. Subsequently, others received similar distinctions, including DonRodrigo de Vivero, aCapitain-General who was madeConde del Valle de Orizaba); Don Pedro Tesifón de Moctezuma, madeConde de Moctezuma de Tultengo); and DonAgustín de Echeverz, governor of theKingdom of Nuevo León, granted the title ofMarqués de San Miguel de Aguayo), amongst many others.
The largest number of Novohispanic noble titles were created in the eighteenth century under the SpanishBourbon monarchs and were added to by an influx of foreign nobles to Mexico.
The noble titles of New Spain were:
The process ofMexican independence, as well as others in the former Spanish Americas, was led by members of the local nobility. Initially, members of the provincial nobility such asMiguel Hidalgo,Ignacio Allende, and others, were amongst the first to form an insurrection against theNapoleonic control over Spain and itsEmpire. Nevertheless, other members of the nobility, like the future EmperorAgustín de Iturbide,Ignacio de Elizondo, the Count of Casa Rul, amongst others, led the resistance against the former insurrectionists. When the Spanish resistance toNapoleon gathered in the city ofCádiz in the year 1812 to form what would later be named as theCortes of Cádiz, representatives were summoned from all points of the Empire to organize and fund the resistance (as well as to define theFirst Constitution of the Kingdom of Spain signed in 1812). This process also had prominent members of the New-Spanish nobility, such as DonJosé María Gutiérrez de Terán (who served as president of the Cortes), DonOctaviano Obregón (a grandson of the 1st Count ofLa Valenciana), DonMiguel Ramos (de Arreola) Arizpe (himself a descendant ofBartolomé de Medina), DonJosé Simeón de Uría y Berrueco (vice-president of the Cortes and defender of racial equality), DonJosé Miguel Gordoa (president of the Cortes, later bishop ofGuadalajara), etc.
Almost ten years after the fall of the first insurrection,Agustín de Iturbide, then commander of the Spanish forces in central Mexico, led the definitive rebellion against Spanish rule, with the aid of many other titled and untitled nobles. Amongst the signers of theMexican Declaration of Independence are DonJuan José Espinosa de los Monteros, theMarquess of Salvatierra de Peralta, DonJosé María Fagoaga (a nephew to the Marquess del Apartado), theCount of Heras Soto, DonFrancisco Manuel Sánchez de Tagle (from the family of the Marquess of Altamira and the Count of San Mateo de Valparaíso), theMarquess of San Juan de Rayas, theCount of Santiago de Calimaya-Marquess of Salinas del Río Pisuerga, Don Juan Cervantes y Padilla (from the latter family), Don José Manuel Velázquez de la Cadena (from one of Mexico's prominent families), DonNicolás Campero y Bustamante (related to the Counts of Alcaraz and Casa Flórez), theCount of Regla, theMarquess of San Miguel de Aguayo,Anastasio Ruiz de Bustamante (later president of Mexico), etc.
Theindependence of the Mexican Empire from Spain happened as an emancipation of powers with a continuity of the precedent political, social, economical and religious system. The first treaty of independence, known as theTreaty of Córdoba, proposed the transferral of KingFerdinand VII of Spain from Europe to Mexico (with the title ofEmperor of Mexico), emulating the transferral of DonPedro IV of Portugal toBrazil a few months before, due to the rise of liberalism in theIberian Peninsula. The King however, never embarked for Mexico, for which a regency was appointed, and after a social uprising, a new Emperor was sought and later proclaimed in the figure ofAgustín de Iturbide. He was the military commander that, once a royalist, turned and led the process of independence (himself a member of thehidalgo class). The new Emperor recognized all pre-existing titles of nobility, as well as nobiliary conditions prescribed under Spanish law, and only granted a few princely dignities to members of his family (including his children and his father, who was proclaimedPrince of the Union), as well as three other titles of nobility, all of which were ratified by the Congress, such as that of Marqués de Samaniego del Castillo (which was already under application with theSpanish Crown). Knighthoods were also created, most notably, theImperial Order of Guadalupe.
The fall of the First Mexican Empire was followed by the prohibition of use of titles of nobility, from theFirst Mexican Republic, action which was responded by many nobles with the junction of the prefix "ex" to their titles ("ex-marqués de..", "ex-conde de...", etc.).
The family of Emperor Agustin I had titles created for them such asMexican Prince,Princess of Iturbide, andPrince of the Union. After the fall of theFirst Empire shortly after its rise, the imperial family was exiled from Mexico, residing firstly in Italy, and later, in the United States of America. The failed return of the ex-Emperor to Mexico was shortly ended after his arrival with his execution. The headship of the house passed then to his eldest son DonAgustín Jerónimo de Iturbide, who had been proclaimedPrince Imperial by theMexican Congress of 1822. In 1855, a plan to restore the monarchy in Mexico, proclaimed Prince Agustín Jerónimo as the new Emperor of Mexico, but never came into effect.[13] In 1865, one year after the proclamation of theSecond Mexican Empire under theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine (see below), DonAgustín (son of Agustín Jerónimo), DonSalvador, and DoñaJosefa de Iturbide were proclaimedPrinces of Iturbide with the treatment ofHighness, ranking just below the new Imperial Family, and put under the tutelage of the new Emperor (never adopted, contrary to popular belief).
The fall of theSecond Mexican Empire, retook the Iturbide family to exile, where they've stayed ever since. During thePorfiriato,Agustín, Prince of Iturbide, Agustin I's grandson and Maximilian I's adopted son, who had graduated fromGeorgetown University, renounced his claim to the throne and title. He returned to Mexico and served as an officer in the Mexican army. But in 1890, after publishing articles critical of PresidentPorfirio Díaz, he was arrested on charges of sedition and sentenced to fourteen months of imprisonment.[14] He returned to Georgetown University, as a professor of theSpanish andFrench languages, and died childless in 1925. Several branches still subsist, most notably through the other adopted son Salvador, being registered and recognized by theAlmanach de Gotha.
The 19th century was a time of great political and military turmoil in Mexico, with repetitive wars against theKingdom of Spain, theKingdom of France and the United States of America, as well as internal wars provoked by the different visions that the ruling classes had over the ideal model of the new nation. After having lost more than half of its territory to the United States of America, and facing excruciating financial debt, some believed the restoration of a stable monarchy was the best option forward for the restitution of order in a country devoured by its irreconcilable differences. In 1859,ArchdukeMaximilian of Habsburg-Lorraine, theViceroy ofLombardy-Venetia (brother to EmperorFranz Joseph of Austria) was first approached by Mexican monarchists led by José PabloMartínez del Río—with a proposal to become theemperor of Mexico. The Habsburg family had ruled theViceroyalty of New Spain from its establishment (see above).
The quest of restitution of the monarchy had begun long before, ever since the deposition of EmperorAgustín I by GeneralAntonio López de Santa Anna (styledHis Serene Highness by theMexican Congress), who preferred, as many others the candidacy of aBourbon orHabsburg prince (for their historical relation with theSpanish Empire), instead of that of a local provincialhidalgo. After many negotiations betweenNapoleon III, his Mexican supporters, and foreign powers, the candidacy of Maximilian was accepted and he arrived in Mexico in 1864.
Several members of the old Mexican nobility were enthusiastic about the monarchical restitution and even traveled toMiramar Castle to officially offer the Mexican crown to the Archduke and his wifeCharlotte of Belgium (daughter of KingLeopold I of the Belgians), who later was known as Carlota.
Contrary to his supporters expectations, the new emperor was a profound liberal, who did little to reinforce the powers of the conservatives, theCatholic Church, or the old Mexican nobility (which were his only supporters). During his short reign he re-established theImperial Order of Guadalupe (which had also been active during the rule ofLópez de Santa Anna), he also founded theImperial Order of the Mexican Eagle (precedent to the presentOrder of the Aztec Eagle), and theImperial Order of San Carlos (given to ladies of the Court and to foreign princesses). During his short lived Empire, the Imperial Court was filled with Austrian, German, French and Italian nobles (several of which stayed in Mexico after the fall of the Empire), who were sometimes at odds with the old Mexican nobles. He invited liberal politicians to his government and his court, and often gave them membership in the Imperial Orders, as well as appointing their consorts as ladies-in-waiting to the Empress. Although his Court implicitly recognised all pre-existing titles (as well as those of the foreigners who accompanied him), nothing was done to give them official status, and the only new titles which were created were those of the Princes Iturbide. The Emperor and Empress themselves did not have any offspring (although there were rumours of a miscarriage[citation needed]), which left the Imperial house without a direct successor.
The direct lines of descent from the original nucleus of nobility, originating with the firstconquistadors andencomenderos in the 16th century, mostly survived to this day only through matronymic connections. This is the case for example with the Cortés, Echeverz, Guerrero-Dávila, Sandoval and Vivero families.[15] Leading noble families active in 17th through 19th century politics, economy, clergy, arts and culture of Mexico included: De la Llamosa, Gómez de Cervantes, Romero de Terreros,de la Cámara or Cámara, Rincón-Gallardo, Riverol, Ríos, Pérez Gálvez, Rul, Vivanco, La Canal, Cañedo, Fernández de Jáuregui, Obando, Fernández de Córdoba, Gómez de Parada, Lara, Lorenz de Rada, Pérez de Salazar, Ruiz de Velasco, Valdivieso, De Haro y Tamariz, De los Ríos, Fagoaga, Echeverz, Dávalos de Bracamonte, Peón, Gutiérrez-Altamirano, Castañiza, Gómez de la Cortina, Urrutia, Velasco, Del Río, Moncada, Diez de Sollano, de Busto y Moya, Reynoso y Manso de Zúñiga, Capetillo, de la Parra, Villaseñor-Cervantes, Villaseñor-Jasso, López de Zárate, Camino, Caserta, Trebuesto, Ruiz de Esparza, García de Teruel, Espinosa de los Monteros, Vizcarra, Rábago, Sardaneta,Martínez del Río, Ozta, Azcárate y Ledesma, de la Torre Ledesma, Molina Flores, Vera Martinez y Cazarez, Samaniego del Castillo, Lemus, Mier, De la Maza, González de Betolaza, López de Peralta, Padilla, Diez-Gutiérrez, Flores-Alatorre, Cosío, Rivadeneyra, de la Cotera, de la Campa y Cos, Rodríguez Sáenz de Pedroso, Padilla, Rivascacho, Villar-Villamil, Rodríguez Rico, Sánchez de Tagle, Báez de Benavides, Cabrero, Hurtado de Mendoza, López-Portillo, García Pimentel, Meade, Sánchez-Saráchaga, Sainz-Trápaga, Villaurrutia, Errazu, Escandón, Heredia de la Pierre, Quintanar, Beovide, Alvarez de Medina, Sánchez de Aldana, Siles, Yermo, de Yturbe, de Béistegui, de Rivera, Zubaran-Capmany and Sánchez-Navarro, among others.[16]
Members of the Rincón Gallardo, Del Río, Fagoaga and Pimentel families (marqués de Guadalupe andmarqués del Apartado) were active in Mexico City government, the ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Senate, the armed forces, and theAcademia de la Lengua or theSociedad de Geografía e Historia. Many journeyed and lived abroad, often doing so in Paris, London, and Madrid. Many men from these families studied at British public or private schools, as had been the custom since before independence.
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Throughout the 19th century several Mexican individuals and their descendants received titles of nobility from foreign nations, including theVatican, theKingdom of Spain, and others. Additionally, many bearers of foreign titles have moved to Mexico during its long history.
Pontifical titles of nobility were granted by the Pope. These titles are sometimes known astítulos negros and include the titles of themarqués de Barrón, conde de Subervielle, conde del Valle (Fernández del Valle family),duque de Mier, amongst others. Many of these families were previously part of the Mexican and Spanishhidalgo class, while others proceeded from France or other countries.[17]
Several titles which were in existence at the time of the Spanish rule over Mexico are still legally recognized to this day bySpain, although very few continued to be passed down following their prohibition in Mexico, falling in the hands of distant or obscure Spanish relatives who spend great sums for "rehabilitating" them through the 19th and 20th centuries.
In addition, a few Mexican families who permanently or temporarily settled in Spain afterMexican Independence continued to be granted distinctions and titles of nobility from the Spanish monarchs, such as theDuke of Regla (Grandee of Spain),Marquess of Morante,Duchess of Prim (Grandee of Spain),Marquess of Bermejillo del Rey, amongst others. Other Mexican individuals acquired their titlesjure uxoris (through marriage), passing them down to their descendants, such as theDuke of Castro-Terreño (Grandee of Spain), Marquess of Montehermoso, Count of Triviana,Count of Echauz and Count of Ezpeleta de Veire (all held by the Mexican Sánchez-Navarro family). Mexican-born DonVentura García-Sancho e Ibarrondo (1837–1914), both received the Spanish title ofCount of Consuegra and becameDuke of Nájera (Grandee of Spain), alsoMarquess of Aguilar de Campoo, amongst many other titles through marriage (passed down to his descendants).
Other members of Spanish nobility moved to Mexico for different reasons, taking their titles with them and bequeathing them to their Mexican descendants. These include theDuke of Sessa (Grandee of Spain), Count of Altamira, theDuke of Huete (Grandee of Spain), amongst many others.
Several members of theFrench nobility moved to Mexico at different times in history, including the descendants ofLouis Jucherau de Saint-Denis, those of count Melchior de Polignac (through his marriage to Susana de la Torre y Mier, sister ofIgnacio de la Torre y Mier), including their sonPrince Pierre, Duke of Valentinois, and through him the presentPrincely House of Monaco.
ArchdukeFelix of Habsburg and his wife Princess Ana Eugenia d'Arenberg settled in Mexico after the fall of theAustrian Empire in 1918, with most of their offspring remaining in Mexico ever since. Archduke Felix was the son of the last Emperor of Austria (Emperor Charles I of Austria) and great-grand nephew of Maximilian I of Mexico.
Members of the Italian nobility were present in Mexico as early as the 16th century, including a contingency ofGenoese bankers that partially funded the Cortés Expedition (the Genoese represented one third of the troops of Cortés).[18]Princess Maria Beatrice of Savoy, daughter of the last King of Italy,Umberto II, also settled in Mexico after the fall of the Italian monarchy, having marriedArgentinian diplomatLuis Reyna-Corvallán inCiudad Juárez. Other members of the Italian nobility include members of theMapelli-Mozzi,Caravita di Sirignano, and many others. At the end of the 19th century, theMarquess of Grimaldi was one of the major landowners of theState of Veracruz.[19]
French-born Mexican authorElena Poniatowska (nicknamedThe Red Princess) is the daughter of Prince Jean-Joseph Poniatowski and Mexican-born María Dolores Amor e Yturbe, herself a cousin ofCarlos de Beistegui.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Mexican nobility – both titled and untitled – consisted of approximately 1.5% of Mexico's population, or approximately 200,000 people.[20] ThePolitical Constitution of Mexico expressly prohibits the state from recognizing (or granting) any titles of nobility since 1917. Mexicans are also prohibited from accepting foreign distinctions without permission from theCongress of the Union.[21]
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