 | |
| Languages | |
|---|---|
| Melanesian languages,Papuan languages,Indonesian,English,English-based creoles,Rabaul Creole German,French | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlyChristianity, minoritytraditional Melanesian religion, andIslam | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Aboriginal Australians,Austronesian peoples,Euronesians |
Melanesians are the predominant andIndigenous inhabitants ofMelanesia, in an area stretching fromNew Guinea to theFiji Islands.[1] Most speak one of the many languages of theAustronesian language family (especially ones in theOceanic branch) or one of the many unrelated families ofPapuan languages. There are several creoles of the region, such asTok Pisin,Hiri Motu,Solomon Islands Pijin,Bislama, andPapuan Malay.[2]
The origin of Melanesians is generally associated with the first settlement ofAustralasia by a lineage dubbed 'Australasians' or 'Australo-Papuans' during theInitial Upper Paleolithic, which is "ascribed to a population movement with uniform genetic features and material culture" (Ancient East Eurasians), and sharing deep ancestry with modernEast Asian peoples and other Asia-Pacific groups.[3][4][5] It is estimated that people reachedSahul (the geological continent consisting of Australia and New Guinea) between 50,000 and 37,000 years ago. Rising sea levels separated New Guinea from Australia about 10,000 years ago. Recent genomic studies suggest that Indigenous Australians and Papuans diverged from Eurasians 51,000 to 72,000 years ago, and from each other around 25,000 to 40,000 years ago.[6][5]
The eastern part ofMelanesia, which includesVanuatu,New Caledonia, andFiji, was first inhabited byAustronesian peoples, who created theLapita culture, and later followed by Melanesian groups. They appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in theSolomon Islands, includingMakira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.[7]
Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian people, who had migrated into the area more than 3,000 years ago,[8] came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples.[9] It was proposed that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking anAustronesian language) departed to the east to become the forebears of thePolynesian people.[10] The indigenous Melanesian populations are thus often classified into two main groups based on differences in language, culture or genetic ancestry: thePapuan-speaking andAustronesian-speaking groups.[11][12]
This Polynesian theory was overturned by a 2010 study, which was based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a wide variety of Pacific peoples. It found that neither Polynesians norMicronesians have any genetic relation to Melanesians. Both groups are strongly related genetically toEast Asians, particularlyTaiwanese aborigines, therefore making Polynesians and Micronesians not related to Melanesians. It appeared that, having developed their sailing outrigger canoes, the ancestors of the Polynesians migrated from East Asia, moved through the Melanesian area quickly on their way, and kept going to eastern areas, where they settled. They left little genetic evidence in Melanesia, "and only intermixed to a very modest degree with the indigenous populations there".[11] Nevertheless, the study still found a small Austronesian genetic signature (below 20%) in less than half of the Melanesian groups who speakAustronesian languages, and which was entirely absent in thePapuan-speaking groups.[8][11]
The study found a high rate of genetic differentiation and diversity among the groups living within the Melanesian islands, with the peoples not only distinguished between the islands, but also by the languages, topography, and size of an island. Such diversity developed over the tens of thousands of years since initial settlement, as well as after the more recent arrival of Polynesian ancestors at the islands. Papuan-speaking groups in particular were found to be the most differentiated, while Austronesian-speaking groups along the coastlines were more intermixed.[8][11]
Further DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as moreHomo erectus races or subspecies have been discovered since the late 20th century. Based on his genetic studies of theDenisova hominin, an ancient human species discovered in 2010,Svante Pääbo claims thatancient human ancestors of the Melanesians interbred in Asia with these humans. He has found that people of New Guinea share 4%–7% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this exchange.[13] The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals. Both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on genetic evidence from a fossil found inSiberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into southeast Asia, where ancestors of the Melanesians developed.[13]
Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair. The blond trait developed via theTYRP1 gene, which is not the same gene that causes blondness in European blonds.[14]
Early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. In 1756,Charles de Brosses theorized that there was an 'old black race' in the Pacific who were conquered or defeated by the peoples of what is now calledPolynesia, whom he distinguished as having lighter skin.[15]: 189–190 By 1825,Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent developed a more elaborate, 15-race model of human diversity.[16] He described the inhabitants of modern-day Melanesia asMélaniens, a distinct racial group from theAustralian andNeptunian (i.e. Polynesian) races surrounding them.[15]: 178
In 1832,Dumont D'Urville expanded and simplified much of this earlier work. He classified the peoples ofOceania into four racial groups: Malayans, Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians.[17]: 165 D'Urville's model differed from that of Bory de Saint-Vincent in referring to 'Melanesians' rather than 'Mélaniens.' He derived the nameMelanesia from Greekμέλας,black, andνῆσος,island, to mean "islands of black people".
Bory de Saint-Vincent had distinguished Mélaniens from theindigenous Australians. Dumont D'Urville combined the two peoples into one group.
Soareset al. (2008) have argued for an older pre-HoloceneSundaland origin inIsland Southeast Asia (ISEA) based onmitochondrial DNA.[18] The "out of Taiwan model" was challenged by a study from Leeds University and published inMolecular Biology and Evolution. Examination of mitochondrial DNA lineages shows that they have been evolving in ISEA for longer than previously believed. Ancestors of the Polynesians arrived in theBismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea at least 6,000 to 8,000 years ago.[19]
PaternalY chromosome analysis by Kayseret al. (2000) also showed that Polynesians have significantMelanesian genetic admixture.[20] A follow-up study by Kayseret al. (2008) discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin, with the rest (79%) being of East Asian origin.[21] A study by Friedlaenderet al. (2008) confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, and East Asians, than to Melanesians. The study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians.[22] Thus, the high frequencies of B4a1a1 are the result of drift and represent the descendants of a very few successful East Asian females.[23]
Austronesian languages and cultural traits were introduced along the north and south-east coasts of New Guinea and in some of the islands north and east of New Guinea by migrating Austronesians, probably starting over 3,500 years ago.[11] This was followed by long periods of interaction that resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture.[24]
It was once postulated that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking anAustronesian language) departed to the east and became the forebears of thePolynesian people.[25] This theory was, however, contradicted by a study published byTemple University finding that Polynesians and Micronesians have little genetic relation to Melanesians; instead, they found significant distinctions between groups living within the Melanesian islands.[26][11]
Genetic links have been identified between the Oceanic peoples. Polynesians are dominated by a type of macro-haplogroup C y-DNA, which is a minority lineage in Melanesia, and have a very low frequency of the dominant Melanesian y-DNA K2b1. A significant minority of them also belong to the typical East Asian maleHaplogroup O-M175.[20]
Some recent studies suggest that all humans outside of Sub-Saharan Africa have inherited some genes from Neanderthals, and that Melanesians are the only known modern humans whose prehistoric ancestors interbred with theDenisova hominin, sharing 4%–6% of their genome with this ancient cousin of the Neanderthal.[13]
Most people withblond hair are ofNorthern European ethno-racial origins. It evolved independently in Melanesia,[27][28] where Melanesians of some islands (along with someindigenous Australians) are one of a few non-European ethnic groups who have blond hair. This has been traced to an allele ofTYRP1 unique to these people, and is not the same gene that causes blond hair in the Northern European region. As with blond hair that arose in Northern Europe, incidence of blondness is more common in children than in adults, with hair tending to darken as the individual matures.
The predominantly Melanesian areas ofOceania includeNew Guinea and surrounding islands, theSolomon Islands,Vanuatu andFiji[citation needed].New Caledonia and nearbyLoyalty Islands for most of their history have had a majority Melanesian population, but the proportion has dropped to 43% in the face of modern immigration.[29]
The largest and most populous Melanesian country isPapua New Guinea. The largest city in Melanesia isPort Moresby inPapua New Guinea with about 318,000 people, mostly of Melanesian ancestry.[30] The western half of New Guinea is part ofIndonesia and is predominantly inhabited by indigenousPapuans, with a significant minority of settlers from other parts of Indonesia.
InAustralia, the total population ofTorres Strait Islanders, a Melanesian people,as of 30 June 2016[update], was about 38,700 identifying as being of Torres Strait Islander origin only, and 32,200 of bothAboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander origin (a total of 70,900).[31]
Melanesian culture, the beliefs and practices of the indigenous peoples of the ethnogeographic group of Pacific Islands known as Melanesia. From northwest to southeast, the islands form an arc that begins with New Guinea (the western half of which is called Papua and is part of Indonesia, and the eastern half of which comprises the independent country of Papua New Guinea) and continues through the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu (formerly New Hebrides), New Caledonia, Fiji, and numerous smaller islands.
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