Themegas doux (Greek:μέγας δούξ,pronounced[ˈmeɣazˈðuks], "grand duke") was one of the highest positions in thehierarchy of the laterByzantine Empire, denoting thecommander-in-chief of theByzantine navy. It is sometimes also given in English by the half-Latinizationsmegaduke ormegadux.[1] The Greek word δούξ is theHellenized form of theLatin termdux, meaning leader or commander.
The office was initially created byAlexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118), who reformed the derelictByzantine navy and amalgamated the remnants of its various provincial squadrons into a unified force under themegas doux.[1] The Emperor's brother-in-lawJohn Doukas is usually considered to have been the first to hold the title, being raised to it in 1092, when he was tasked with suppressing the Turkish emirTzachas. There is however a document dated to December 1085, where a monk Niketas signs as supervisor of the estates of an unnamedmegas doux.[2][3] The office of "doux [commander] of the fleet" (δούξ τοῦ στόλου,doux tou stolou), with similar responsibilities and hence perhaps a precursor of the office ofmegas doux, is also mentioned at the time, being givenc. 1086 toManuel Boutoumites and in 1090 toConstantine Dalassenos.[1][4]
Initially, the office may have designated ad hoc commanders-in-chief placed in charge of combined naval and land expeditions, before coming to denote the head of the imperial fleet.[5] John Doukas, the first knownmegas doux, led campaigns on both land and sea and was responsible for the re-establishment of firm Byzantine control over theAegean and the islands ofCrete andCyprus in the years 1092–93 and over westernAnatolia in 1097.[6][7][8] From this time themegas doux was also given overall control of the provinces ofHellas, thePeloponnese andCrete, which chiefly provided the manpower and resources for the fleet.[9][10] However, since themegas doux was one of the Empire's senior officials, and mostly involved with the central government and various military campaigns,de factο governance of these provinces rested with the provinces'praitor orkatepano, and various local leaders.[11] During the 12th century, the post ofmegas doux was dominated by theKontostephanos family;[1] one of its members,Andronikos Kontostephanos, was one of the most important officers of EmperorManuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180), assisting him in achieving many land and naval victories.
With the virtual disappearance of the Byzantine fleet after theFourth Crusade, the title was retained as an honorific in theEmpire of Nicaea.Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) assumed the title when he became regent forJohn IV Laskaris (r. 1258–1261), before being raised to senior co-emperor.[12] It was also used by theLatin Empire, where, inc. 1207, the Latin emperor awarded the island ofLemnos and the hereditary title ofmegadux to the Venetian (or possibly of mixed Greek and Venetian descent)Filocalo Navigajoso ("imperiali privilegio Imperii Megaducha est effectus").[1][13] His descendants inherited the title and the rule of Lemnos until evicted by the Byzantines in 1278.
After the Byzantine recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the title reverted to its old function as commander-in-chief of the navy, and remained a high rank for the remainder of the empire, its holder ranking sixth after the emperor, between theprotovestiarios and theprotostrator.[1][14] As such, it was also sometimes conferred upon foreigners in imperial service, the most notable among these being the ItalianLicario, who recovered many Aegean islands for Emperor Michael VIII,[15] andRoger de Flor, head of theCatalan Company.[1] The mid-14th centuryBook of Offices ofPseudo-Kodinos lists the insignia of themegas doux as a golden-redskiadion hat decorated with embroideries in theklapoton style, without veil. Alternatively, a domedskaranikon hat could be worn, again in red and gold and decorated with golden wire, with a portrait of the emperor standing in front, and another of him enthroned in the rear. Themegas doux also wore a rich silk tunic, thekabbadion, and could choose the fabric himself "from those that are in use". His staff of office (dikanikion) featured carved knots and knobs in gold, bordered with silver braid.[16] Pseudo-Kodinos also records that, while the other warships flew "the usual imperial flag" of thecross and the firesteels, the flagship of themegas doux flew an image of the emperor on horseback.[17] His subordinate officials were themegas droungarios tou stolou, theameralios, theprotokomes, a number of juniordroungarioi, and of juniorkometes.[17]
TheSerbian Empire, established in 1346 by TsarStefan Dushan, adopted various Byzantine titles, among them that ofmegas doux, which became the "grandvoivode" (veliki vojvoda), albeit without any naval connotations. Holders of the office included senior noblemen such asJovan Uglješa[18] andJovan Oliver.[19]
| Name | Tenure | Appointed by | Notes | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| John Doukas | 1092 – unknown | Alexios I Komnenos | Brother-in-law of Alexios I, previously governor ofDyrrhachium. | [1] |
| Landulf | 1099–1105 | Alexios I Komnenos | Admiral of Western origin. | [20][21] |
| Isaac Kontostephanos | 1105–1108 | Alexios I Komnenos | Dismissed for his incompetence in the wars againstBohemond. | [20][22] |
| Marianos Maurokatakalon | 1108 – unknown | Alexios I Komnenos | Successor of Isaac Konstostephanos. | [20][23] |
| Eumathios Philokales | after 1112 – after 1118 | Alexios I Komnenos | Previously judicial official in Greece and long-time governor ofCyprus. | [24][25] |
| Constantine Opos | Unknown | Alexios I Komnenos | Distinguished general in the campaigns against the Turks. | [26] |
| Leo Nikerites | Unknown | Alexios I Komnenos | Eunuch, previously governor in Bulgaria and thePeloponnese. | [26] |
| Nikephoros Vatatzes | Unknown | Alexios I Komnenos (?) | Known only through a seal, possibly dating to the reign of Alexios I. | [26] |
| Stephen Kontostephanos | ca. 1145 (?) – 1149 | Manuel I Komnenos | Brother-in-law of Manuel I, was killed while in office in 1149. | [27] |
| Alexios Komnenos | ca. 1155 – after 1161 | Manuel I Komnenos | Son ofAnna Komnene andNikephoros Bryennios the Younger. | [26] |
| Andronikos Kontostephanos | after 1161 – 1182 | Manuel I Komnenos | Manuel's nephew, he was the emperor's most trusted and distinguished general. Blinded by the usurperAndronikos I Komnenos in 1182. | [28] |
| John Komnenos | Unknown | Manuel I Komnenos | First cousin of Manuel I, son of thesebastokrator Andronikos Komnenos. He fell atMyriokephalon in 1176. | [27] |
| Constantine Angelos Doukas | Unknown | Isaac II Angelos | doux tou stolou and afterwards governor ofPhilippopolis, he led an unsuccessful usurpation attempt. | [29] |
| Michael Stryphnos | ca. 1195 – after 1201/1202 | Alexios III Angelos | A favourite of Alexios III. He reportedly sold off the fleet's equipment to enrich himself. | [30] |
| Theodotos Phokas | ca. 1210 | Theodore I Laskaris | Uncle of Theodore I, emperor ofNicaea, known only from a monastic property deed dating to between 1206 and 1212. | [31] |
| John Gabalas | ca. 1240 | John III Vatatzes | A letter by KingHenry I of Cyprus to the anonymous "great ruler of the God-guarded island ofRhodes and theCyclades", identified bySpyridon Lambros with John, refers to him aspansebastos sebastos,megas doux, andgambros of the emperor. | [32] |
| Michael Palaiologos | 1258 | John IV Laskaris | The future Michael VIII, he assumed the office after the murder ofGeorge Mouzalon in September 1258, when he was named regent for the young John IV. He was soon after raised todespotes and eventually to emperor. | [31][33] |
| Michael Tzamantouros Laskaris | 1259 – ca. 1269/72 | Michael VIII Palaiologos | Brother of Theodore I Laskaris, due to his advanced age he never held actual command of the fleet. He held the office until his death. | [34][35] |
| Alexios Doukas Philanthropenos | ca. 1272/73 – ca. 1274/75 | Michael VIII Palaiologos | Previouslyprotostrator andde facto commander of the fleet since ca. 1263. Held the office ofmegas doux until his death. | [36][37] |
| Licario | ca. 1275/77 – unknown | Michael VIII Palaiologos | Italian renegade who entered Byzantine service, he conqueredNegroponte and many of the Aegean islands. | [38][39] |
| John de lo Cavo | after 1278 | Michael VIII Palaiologos | Genoese privateer who entered Byzantine service, lord ofAnafi and Rhodes. | [40][41] |
| Roger de Flor | 1303–1304 | Andronikos II Palaiologos | Leader of the mercenaryCatalan Company. He resigned his post in late 1304 favour of his lieutenant,Berenguer d'Entença, and was murdered a few months later. | [38][42] |
| Berenguer d'Entença | 1304–1305 | Andronikos II Palaiologos | Roger de Flor's lieutenant and successor as leader of the mercenaryCatalan Company. He resigned his office after disagreeing with the emperor | [43][44][45] |
| Fernand Ximenes de Arenos | 1307/1308 – unknown | Andronikos II Palaiologos | One of the leaders of theCatalan Company, he was namedmegas doux defected to the Byzantines | [46][47][48] |
| Syrgiannes Palaiologos | 1321–1322 or 1328/29 | Andronikos II Palaiologos | One of the main partisans of the youngAndronikos III Palaiologos in theByzantine civil war of 1321–1328, he defected to the aged Andronikos II, who rewarded him with the office ofmegas doux. After plotting against him as well, he was imprisoned. | [46][49][50] |
| Isaac Palaiologos Asanes | unknown – 1341 | Andronikos III Palaiologos | Promoted topanhypersebastos, and replaced in office by Alexios Apokaukos. | [46][51] |
| Alexios Apokaukos | 1341–1345 | Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos | A former partisan and protégé ofJohn Kantakouzenos, Apokaukos was instrumental in the outbreak of theByzantine civil war of 1341–1347, and until his murder in 1345 led the anti-Kantakouzenist regency for John V | [46][52] |
| Asomatianos Tzamplakon | 1348–1349 | John VI Kantakouzenos | Head of the fleet during theByzantine–Genoese war of 1348–1349. He died some time before 1356 | [46][53][54] |
| [Paul?] Mamonas | after 1393/94 – before 1416/17 | Manuel II Palaiologos | The Mamonas family were hereditary rulers ofMonemvasia. [Paul] Mamonas ruled the city between 1384 and 1416/17 | [55][56] |
| Manuel | unknown – 1410 | Manuel II Palaiologos | Mentioned only in an anonymous chronicle as dying of an epidemic in 1409/10 | [55][57] |
| [Manuel?] Phrangopoulos | ca. 1429 | Theodore II Palaiologos | Promoted fromprōtostratōr tomegas doux of theDespotate of the Morea in 1429. Manuel Phrangopoulos was a senior official of the Despotate already since the 1390s. | [58] |
| Paraspondelos | ca. 1436 | John VIII Palaiologos | Known only as the father-in-law ofDemetrios Palaiologos. | [55][59] |
| Loukas Notaras | after 1441 – 1453 | John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos | A wealthy merchant and landowner with estates in Italy, Notaras served as ship captain in 1441, and then under both John VIII and Constantine XI as chief minister (mesazōn). He was executed by the Ottomans after theFall of Constantinople | [55][60] |
| Name | Tenure | Appointed by | Notes | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lekes Tzatzintzaios | unknown–1332 | Executed byBasil Megas Komnenos on his arrival toTrebizond. | [61] | |
| John | 1332–1344 | Basil Megas Komnenos Irene Palaiologina | Eunuch and one of the leading participants in theTrapezuntine Civil War on the side of EmpressIrene Palaiologina. | [61] |
| Niketas Scholarios | 1344–1345 1349–1361 | John III Megas Komnenos Michael Megas Komnenos Alexios III Megas Komnenos | One of the leading participants in theTrapezuntine Civil War, as a partisan ofJohn III Megas Komnenos. Imprisoned byMichael Megas Komnenos in 1345, he was reinstated by Michael in 1349 and remained in office underAlexios III, probably until his death in 1361. | [62] |
| John Kabazites | after 1344 – 1349 | Michael Megas Komnenos | One of the leading participants in theTrapezuntine Civil War against EmpressIrene Palaiologina. Killed fighting against the Genoese atKaffa. | [63] |
| Scholaris | ca. 1395 | Otherwise unknown/unidentified. | [64] |
In the 1490ValencianepicromanceTirant lo Blanc, the valiant knight Tirant the White from Brittany travels to Constantinople and becomes a Byzantinemegadux. This story has no basis in actual history, though it may reflect the above-mentioned cases of the office being conferred upon foreigners.
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