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McCune–Reischauer (MR;/məˈkjuːnˈraɪʃaʊ.ər/mə-KEWNRYSHE-ow-ər) is aromanization system for the Korean language. It was first published in 1939 byGeorge M. McCune andEdwin O. Reischauer. Significant work on the system was done by Korean linguistsChoe Hyeon-bae,Jeong In-seop [ko], andKim Seon-gi [ko].
According to Reischauer, McCune "persuaded the AmericanArmy Map Service to adopt [the McCune–Reischauer system], and through theKorean War it became the foundation for most current Romanizations of Korean place names."[1]
A variant of McCune–Reischauer is currently used as the official system inNorth Korea.Another variant is currently used for standard romanization library catalogs inNorth America. On the other hand,South Korea formerly usedyet another variant as its official system from 1984 to 2000, but replaced it with theRevised Romanization of Korean in 2000.
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| Hangul |
| Hanja |
| Mixed script |
| Braille |
| Transcription |
| Transliteration |
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The following are some characteristics of the McCune–Reischauer system:
McCune–Reischauer employs dual use of apostrophes, with the more common being for syllabic boundaries. Therefore, it may take some time for learners to familiarise themselves with the placement of apostrophes to determine how a romanized Korean word is pronounced. For example,마찬가지 →mach'an'gaji, which consists of the syllablesma,ch'an,ga, andji.
In the early days of the Internet, the apostrophe and breve were even omitted altogether for both technical and practical reasons, which made it impossible to differentiate the strongly aspirated consonantsk',t',p' andch' from theunaspirated consonantsk,t,p andch, and the vowelsㅓ andㅡ fromㅗ andㅜ.
For example, if the diacritics in the MR rendering of the name of South Korean cityCh'ŏngju (청주;Cheongju) are omitted (Chongju), it overlaps with the name of North Korean cityChongju (정주;Jeongju).[3] There is a claim of uncertain veracity[a] that, during the 1950–1953Korean War, the US Army accidentally (or almost) bombed the wrong city due to this.[6]
As a result, the South Korean government introduced arevised system of romanization in 2000.[10] However, Korean critics claimed that the Revised System fails to representㅓ andㅡ in a way that is easily recognizable and misrepresents the way that the unaspirated consonants are actually pronounced.
This is a simplified guide for the McCune–Reischauer system.
| Hangul | ㅏ | ㅐ | ㅑ | ㅒ | ㅓ | ㅔ[b] | ㅕ | ㅖ | ㅗ | ㅘ | ㅙ | ㅚ | ㅛ | ㅜ | ㅝ | ㅞ | ㅟ | ㅠ | ㅡ | ㅢ | ㅣ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Romanization | a | ae | ya | yae | ŏ | e | yŏ | ye | o | wa | wae | oe | yo | u | wŏ | we | wi | yu | ŭ | ŭi | i |
| Hangul | ㄱ | ㄲ | ㄴ | ㄷ | ㄸ | ㄹ | ㅁ | ㅂ | ㅃ | ㅅ[c] | ㅆ[d] | ㅇ[e] | ㅈ | ㅉ | ㅊ | ㅋ | ㅌ | ㅍ | ㅎ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Romanization | Word-initial | k | kk | n | t | tt | r | m | p | pp | s | ss | — | ch | tch | ch' | k' | t' | p' | h |
| Word-final | k | — | l | — | t | — | ng | t | — | t | k | t | p | t | ||||||
The heterogeneous consonant digraphs (ㄳ,ㄵ,ㄶ,ㄺ,ㄻ,ㄼ,ㄽ,ㄾ,ㄿ,ㅀ, andㅄ) exist only as syllabic finals and are transcribed by their actual pronunciation.
The following table is sufficient for the transcription of most proper names.
| Initial[f] | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ㅇ[e] — | ㄱ k | ㄲ kk | ㄴ n | ㄷ t | ㄸ tt | ㄹ r | ㅁ m | ㅂ p | ㅃ pp | ㅅ[c] s | ㅆ ss | ㅈ ch | ㅉ tch | ㅎ h | ||
| Final | (vowel)[g] | — | g | kk | n | d | tt | r | m | b | pp | s | ss | j | tch | h |
| ㄱ k | g | kk | kk | ngn | kt | ktt | ngn | ngm | kp | kpp | ks | kss | kch | ktch | kh | |
| ㄴ n | n | n'g | nkk | nn | nd | ntt | ll | nm | nb | npp | ns | nss | nj | ntch | nh | |
| ㄷ t | d | tk | tkk | nn | tt | tt | nn | nm | tp | tpp | ss | ss | tch | tch | th | |
| ㄹ l | r | lg | lkk | ll | ld[h] | ltt | ll | lm | lb | lpp | ls | lss | lj[i] | ltch | rh | |
| ㅁ m | m | mg | mkk | mn | md | mtt | mn | mm | mb | mpp | ms | mss | mj | mtch | mh | |
| ㅂ p | b | pk | pkk | mn | pt | ptt | mn | mm | pp | pp | ps | pss | pch | ptch | ph | |
| ㅇ ng | ng | ngg | ngkk | ngn | ngd | ngtt | ngn | ngm | ngb | ngpp | ngs | ngss | ngj | ngtch | ngh | |
The following subsections are for cases not covered by the table above, or for cases where the result should be different from the table.
In this combination, the syllabic final (exceptㅇ, which is alwaysng) is
If the syllabic initial is pronounced
Examples:
Any combination with the syllabic initialㅎ is transcribed based on the actual pronunciation, except when the result is [ㅋ], [ㅌ], or [ㅍ]; these are treated asㄱㅎ (kh),ㄷㅎ (th), andㅂㅎ (ph) respectively.
Any combination with the syllabic finalㅎ (includingㄶ andㅀ) is transcribed based on the actual pronunciation.
The rules stated above are also applied in personal names, except between a surname and a given name. A surname and a given name are separated by a space, but multiple syllables within a surname or within a given name are joined without hyphens or spaces.
The original 1939 paper states the following:[11]
The Romanization of Proper Names and Titles
Proper names like words should not be divided into syllables, as has often been done in the past. For example, the geographic term光州 should be romanized Kwangju. Irregularities occurring in proper names such as in P'yŏngyang平壤 which is colloquially pronounced P'iyang or P'eyang, should usually be ignored in romanizations intended for scholarly use.
Personal names demand special consideration. As in China, the great majority of surnames are monosyllables representing a single character, while a few are two character names. The given name, which follows the surname, usually has two characters but sometimes only one. In both two character surnames and two character given names the general rules of euphonic change should be observed, and the two syllables should be written together.
The problem of the euphonic changes between a surname and given name or title is very difficult. A man known as Paek Paksa백 박사 (Dr. Paek) might prove to have the full name of Paeng Nakchun백낙준 because of the assimilation of the finalk of his surname and the initialn of his given name. The use in romanization of both Dr. Paek and Paeng Nakchun for the same person would result in considerable confusion. Therefore it seems best for romanizations purposes to disregard euphonic changes between surnames and given names or titles, so that the above name should be romanized Paek Nakchun.
For ordinary social use our romanization often may not prove suitable for personal names. Even in scholarly work there are also a few instances of rather well-established romanizations for proper names which might be left unchanged, just as the names of some of the provinces of China still have traditional romanizations not in accord with theWade–Giles system. There is, for example, Seoul, which some may prefer to the Sŏul of our system. Another very important example is李, the surname of the kings of the last Korean dynasty and still a very common Korean surname. Actually it is pronounced in the standard dialect and should be romanizedI, but some may prefer to retain the older romanization,Yi, because that is already the familiar form. In any case the other romanizations of李,Ri andLi, should not be used.
The original paper also gives McCune–Reischauer romanizations for a number of other personal names:
George M. McCune, son ofPyongyang-based missionaryGeorge Shannon McCune,[15] was born in Korea in 1905.[16] After attending university in the United States,[16] he returned to Korea (which was then under Japanese rule) in the summer of 1937 to work on his PhD dissertation for theUniversity of California, Berkeley.[15] In Korea, he studied at Chōsen Christian College (predecessor toYonsei University) inSeoul (then called "Keijō") under the Korean linguistsChoe Hyeon-bae,Jeong In-seop [ko], andKim Seon-gi [ko].[16][17] Around September of that year, JapanologistEdwin O. Reischauer became stranded in Keijō while he was en route toBeijing due to theSecond Sino-Japanese War.[15][16][17] During Reischauer's two-month stay there, he and McCune worked with Choe, Jeong, and Kim to develop what would become the McCune–Reischauer romanization system.[15][12][16] Work continued on the system even after Reischauer departed Korea to China. Eventually, the system was published in 1939 in the journalTransactions of the Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch.[17]
In 1980, Reischauer wrote in a letter that the system was devised at his suggestion because he "found absolutely no uniform system of any sort, and [he] needed something for the Korean names that appeared in [his] studies on the travels of the [Japanese] monkEnnin".[18] He also wrote that they designed the system "with only scholars in mind", and that he felt it was too complicated for regular use.[18][3] He expressed hope that a new romanization that "everyone would use for both scholarly and popular use [would] be worked out and adopted".[3]
The new South Korean government adopted the system in 1948.[16][19] English-language newspaperThe Korea Times adopted the system in the 1950s.[20] The system received pushback from Koreans. It came to be seen as more intuitive for foreigners and less intuitive for Koreans, as it reflected pronunciation changes that most Koreans were not consciously aware of.[21][22] Fouser argued that another point of contention was related to nationalism; some disliked that the system had been developed by foreigners during the Japanese colonial period, and wanted a natively developed alternative.[23] In 1959, theSouth Korean Ministry of Education [ko] published a romanization system, which has since been dubbed theMinistry of Education system (MOE).[24][25] The system was immediately controversial, especially among foreigners. Fouser evaluated the system as prioritizing use for Koreans; it had a one-to-one correspondence from Hangul to Latin script and did not reflect pronunciation changes that Hangul did not.[26] In June 1981, a number of scholars met at the University of Hawaii's Center for Korean Studies and developed a number of proposed changes to MR.[27][28][29] The changes were largely based on a draft proposal from the USLibrary of Congress and were meant to aid use by librarians. For example, it was designed to promotereversibility, which was to the interest of librarians.[29] In the 1980s, the South Korean government began considering whether to use a more foreigner-friendly system in anticipation of the1986 Asian Games and the1988 Summer Olympics,[30][31][32] which were to be held in Seoul. In 1984, a slightly modified version of McCune–Reischauer was adopted.[33][34] Some South Koreans reportedly had negative reactions to the system, which they viewed as confusing and overly beholden to pronunciation.[33]
With the spread of computers and the Internet in the 1990s, complaints and debate about MR grew. This was primarily related to the system's use of diacritics, which are difficult to access on standard keyboards. In 1997, the South Korean government began moving to revise or switch romanization systems.[35]
In contemporary South Korea, which has since adopted Revised Romanization, MR has left a lasting legacy in a number of cases:[36][37][38]
A variant of McCune–Reischauer is currently in official use inNorth Korea.[40] The following are the differences between the original McCune–Reischauer and the North Korean variant:
The following table illustrates the differences above.
| Hangul | McCune–Reischauer | North Korean variant | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 편지 | p'yŏnji | phyŏnji | letter (message) |
| 주체 | Chuch'e | Juche | Juche |
| 안쪽 | antchok | anjjok | inside |
| 빨리 | ppalli | ppalri | quickly |
| 발해 | Parhae | Palhae | Balhae |
| 목란 | mongnan | mongran | Magnolia sieboldii |
| 연구 | yŏn'gu | yŏn-gu | research, study |
| 영어 | yŏngŏ | yŏng-ŏ | English language |
| 안복철 | An Pokch'ŏl | An Pok Chŏl | personal name (surname안, given name복철) |
A variant of McCune–Reischauer[41][42] was in official use in South Korea from 1984 to 2000. The following are the differences between the original McCune–Reischauer and the South Korean variant:
The following table illustrates the differences above.
| Hangul | McCune–Reischauer | South Korean variant | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 시장 | sijang | shijang | market |
| 쉽다 | shwipta | swipta | easy |
| 소원 | sowŏn | sowon | wish |
| 연구 | yŏn'gu | yŏn-gu | research, study |
| 영어 | yŏngŏ | yŏng-ŏ | English language |
| 회사에서 | hoesaësŏ | hoesa-esŏ | at a company |
| 차고에 | ch'agoë | ch'ago-e | in a garage |
| 발해 | Parhae | Palhae | Balhae |
| 낙하산 | nakhasan | nak'asan | parachute |
| 못하다 | mothada | mot'ada | to be poor at |
| 곱하기 | kophagi | kop'agi | multiplication |
| 남궁동자 | Namgung Tongja | Namgung Tong-cha | personal name (surname남궁, given name동자) |
Among the variousALA-LC romanization systems is one for Korean.[43] It is currently used for standard romanization library catalogs inNorth America.[44] It is based on but deviates from McCune–Reischauer. The following are some differences between the original McCune–Reischauer and the ALA-LC variant:
The following table illustrates the differences above.
| Hangul | McCune–Reischauer | ALA-LC variant | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 꽃이 | kkoch'i | kkot i | flower + (subject marker) |
| 굳세다 | kusseda | kutseda | strong, firm |
| 이석민 | I Sŏngmin | Yi Sŏng-min | personal name (surname이, given name석민) |
The older (1997) version[50][51] of the ALA-LC rule usedʻ for strongly aspirated consonants andʼ forㄴㄱ (e.g.마찬가지machʻanʼgaji), even though the original McCune–Reischauer paper uses the’ shape for both. This distinction in the older ALA-LC rule was removed in the new ALA-LC rule above.
86년 아시안게임 88년 올림픽을 앞두고 84년에 개정했던 전례
84년 로마자 표기법 개정이 86아시안게임과 88서울올림픽을 겨냥했던 것
84년 로마자 표기법 개정이 86아시안게임과 88서울올림픽을 겨냥했던 것
TK(대구·경북)와 PK(부산·경남)
PK(부산·경남) [...] TK(대구·경북)
TK" standing for "Taegu and Kyongsang-pukdo" and "PK" for "Pusan and Kyongsang-namdo.
大邱 慶尙北道(앞으로 TK라 부르겠읍니다)
It makes an effort to distinguish Sino-Korean names from names of native or western origin based on pronunciation. When ambiguity arises, a string is considered Sino-Korean and might need to be modified manually. [...] 김새미 => Kim Sae-mi (ambiguous)
